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Res. 01701-2023 Sala Constitucional · Sala Constitucional · 25/01/2023
OutcomeResultado
The Chamber denied the challenge on the merits and left intact the precedent linking compensable good faith to ownership or possession predating the creation or delimitation of the Indigenous reserve.La Sala rechazó por el fondo la acción y mantuvo la jurisprudencia que vincula la buena fe indemnizable con una propiedad o posesión anterior a la creación o delimitación de la reserva indígena.
SummaryResumen
The Constitutional Chamber rejected on the merits a challenge to Article 2 of the Indigenous Law and to First Chamber precedent interpreting Articles 2, 3, and 5 together. The challenged precedent holds that land within Indigenous reserves is inalienable and nontransferable and that non-Indigenous persons cannot acquire it under any title. Entitlement to relocation or, alternatively, expropriation and compensation requires good-faith ownership or possession predating the Indigenous Law or the executive decree that incorporated the property into the reserve. A person acquiring rights after that incorporation violates the statutory prohibition and may be treated as an occupier subject to eviction without compensation. The majority left that interpretation in place. Justice Garro Vargas partially dissented, reasoning that bad faith cannot be presumed categorically from the date and statutory nullity of a transfer alone; in her view, good faith must be determined from the particular circumstances of each case.La Sala Constitucional rechazó por el fondo la acción dirigida contra el artículo 2 de la Ley Indígena y la jurisprudencia de la Sala Primera que interpreta conjuntamente los artículos 2, 3 y 5 de esa ley. La línea cuestionada sostiene que las tierras de las reservas indígenas son inalienables e intransferibles y que las personas no indígenas no pueden adquirirlas por título alguno. Para tener derecho a reubicación o, subsidiariamente, a expropiación e indemnización, la propiedad o posesión de buena fe debe existir antes de la entrada en vigor de la Ley Indígena o del decreto que incorporó el inmueble a la reserva. Quien adquiere después de esa incorporación transgrede la prohibición legal y puede ser considerado invasor, sujeto a desalojo sin indemnización. La mayoría mantuvo esa interpretación. La magistrada Garro Vargas salvó parcialmente el voto: consideró inconstitucional presumir genéricamente la mala fe solo por la fecha y nulidad del traspaso, pues la buena fe debería examinarse según las circunstancias de cada caso.
Key excerptExtracto clave
That temporal element (namely, predating the establishment of the reserve by the Indigenous Law or the incorporation of the land through the executive decrees implementing it) is inherent in the possession or ownership giving rise to the right to relocation or compensation. In other words, it forms part of the required conditions because it is a determining factor of good faith. The action is rejected on the merits. Justice Garro Vargas partially dissents and declares the challenged line of precedent unconstitutional insofar as it generally assumes bad faith in the basis for acquiring ownership through a conveyance solely because Article 5 of the Indigenous Law was in force and, consequently, because of the original nullity of the transfer under that article. Justice Garro Vargas files a separate note.Aquel elemento temporal (cual es: anterioridad al establecimiento de la reserva por la Ley Indígena o bien, de previo a la incorporación del terreno mediante los decretos ejecutivos que le desarrollan) es consustancial a la posesión o titularidad que da lugar al derecho a la reubicación o indemnización. Es decir, integra su presupuesto, ya que es un factor determinante de la buena fe. Se rechaza por el fondo la acción. La magistrada Garro Vargas salva parcialmente el voto y declara inconstitucional la línea jurisprudencial impugnada en cuanto asume, de manera genérica, la existencia de mala fe en la causa adquisitiva del negocio traslativo de dominio a partir, exclusivamente, de la vigencia del artículo 5 de la Ley Indígena y, por ello, de la nulidad originaria del negocio de traspaso, derivada de lo dispuesto en el citado artículo. La magistrada Garro Vargas consigna nota.
Pull quotesCitas destacadas
"Dichas reservas son propiedad de las comunidades indígenas conforme el artículo 2 ejúsdem."
"Those reserves belong to the Indigenous communities pursuant to Article 2 of the same law."
Jurisprudencia impugnada
"Dichas reservas son propiedad de las comunidades indígenas conforme el artículo 2 ejúsdem."
Jurisprudencia impugnada
"En consecuencia, un sujeto no indígena que haya comenzado con el ejercicio de actos de posesión o propiedad después de la inclusión del terreno en una reserva, no puede estimarse de buena fe."
"Consequently, a non-Indigenous person who began exercising possession or ownership after the land was included in a reserve cannot be regarded as acting in good faith."
Jurisprudencia impugnada
"En consecuencia, un sujeto no indígena que haya comenzado con el ejercicio de actos de posesión o propiedad después de la inclusión del terreno en una reserva, no puede estimarse de buena fe."
Jurisprudencia impugnada
"Así, es menester un análisis particular de cada caso concreto, para discriminar si ha existido mala fe en la adquisición. Esta condición no se desprende, en automático, por la nulidad de base legal del negocio de traslado de dominio."
"Thus, each individual case must be examined to determine whether the acquisition involved bad faith. That condition does not arise automatically from the transfer's statutory nullity."
Voto salvado
"Así, es menester un análisis particular de cada caso concreto, para discriminar si ha existido mala fe en la adquisición. Esta condición no se desprende, en automático, por la nulidad de base legal del negocio de traslado de dominio."
Voto salvado
"La nulidad del acto no es porque se dio mala fe, sino porque este se realizó después de la entrada en vigor de esa ley."
"The act is not void because there was bad faith, but because it occurred after that law entered into force."
Nota de la magistrada Garro Vargas
"La nulidad del acto no es porque se dio mala fe, sino porque este se realizó después de la entrada en vigor de esa ley."
Nota de la magistrada Garro Vargas
Full documentDocumento completo
Document Review Decision No. 2023001701 CONSTITUTIONAL CHAMBER OF THE SUPREME COURT OF JUSTICE. San José, at nine thirty a.m. on January twenty-fifth, two thousand twenty-three.
Constitutional challenge (acción de inconstitucionalidad) brought by Nombre189, identity card CED44800, of legal age, married, attorney, resident of Heredia, professional license 3191, acting as special judicial attorney-in-fact (apoderado especial judicial) for Nombre114942, identity card CED44801, against the case law of the First Chamber of the Supreme Court of Justice concerning sections 2, 3, and 5 of the Indigenous Law (Ley Indígena) and Article 2 of that same statute.
Whereas (Resultando):
From that moment onward, moreover—as the Constitutional Chamber stated in judgment 2097-2011 of 23 de febrero de 2011—the property is frozen; as a result, the individual who until then exercised possession or ownership with all its attributes is absolutely restricted in the power to dispose of his right over that land, as provided in the third section of the legal provisions. Consequently, the appellant in cassation (casacionista) is incorrect in alleging an erroneous interpretation of sections 3 and 5 of the Ley Indígena. Nor is there any violation of section 45 of the Constitution and section 286 of the Código Civil, because his arguments concerning these latter two provisions depended on the interpretation of the former. In particular, it is precisely because of that conflict with the ownership right established in favor of the indigenous community, and because of that absolute restriction on the power of disposition, which alters the essential content of his right, that the Law directs Inder to carry out relocation or expropriation, in observance of constitutional section 45; this must additionally be implemented through application of the aforementioned international rules and the Ley de Expropiaciones, no 7495.
It scarcely needs to be noted that, in the case at bar (sub júdice), the Court found it proven that within the Guaymí de Conte Burica indigenous reserve are located the unregistered survey plans in the name of Nombre82219 describing two parcels of land: one measuring 18 hectares 5110,18 square meters, located in La Yerba, and another measuring three hectares 801,24 square meters, located in Río Claro, both in the fourth district, Pavón, seventh canton, Golfito, Provincia de Puntarenas (first and second proven facts).” The petitioner (accionante) states that the cited decision arose from a proceeding in which the plaintiff sought expropriation or relocation on the grounds that properties he owned had been demarcated for inclusion in an indigenous territory, a claim that was denied in its entirety by both the trial court and the Cassation Chamber. The decision at issue analyzes sections 3 and 5 of the Ley Indígena in order to establish the basic principles defining the conditions that must be met for the expropriation or relocation of good-faith owners and possessors provided for in Article 5 of that law.
Based on the foregoing, the Cassation Chamber concludes from that provision (read in conjunction with sections 2 and 3) that the “lands included within indigenous reserves are inalienable and nontransferable”; that “non-indigenous persons may not acquire such lands or rights over them under any form of title”; and, finally, that “non-indigenous persons who are good-faith owners or possessors have the right to be relocated or, failing that, expropriated, but only if their exercise of possession or acts as an owner was in good faith, which necessarily requires that they have held that status before the Ley Indígena entered into force or before the various Executive Decrees that, pursuant to its first article, define the physical boundaries of the reserves.” He alleges that indigenous territories are indeed outside the stream of commerce for non-indigenous persons and that the latter cannot acquire rights over lands belonging to indigenous communities, as section 3 is clear and unequivocal in that regard; however, as to the right afforded to non-indigenous persons who are good-faith owners or possessors, the First Chamber adopts an interpretation—which it has reiterated in subsequent judgments and which has been replicated by the Administrative and Civil Court of the Treasury—that violates constitutional rights.
Under the fifth section of the Ley Indígena, the First Chamber considers it a sine qua non for classifying possession or ownership as being in good faith that the claimants have owned the property since before the Ley Indígena entered into force or before the executive decrees demarcating the indigenous reserves. Put more simply, in the First Chamber’s view, for an owner or possessor to be considered in good faith, that person must necessarily have exercised the right before the 1977 Ley Indígena or before the executive decrees that demarcated the reserves. In other words, good faith is subject to a temporal criterion. In that regard, the decision at issue states: “That temporal element (namely, predating the establishment of the reserve by the Ley Indígena or, alternatively, predating the incorporation of the land through the executive decrees implementing it) is inherent in the possession or title giving rise to the right to relocation or compensation.
That is, it forms part of the conditions for that right, because it is a determining factor of good faith.” The petitioner argues that this is an expansive interpretation because the law in question nowhere equates good-faith ownership or possession with a temporal criterion. In fact, the doctrine of good faith operates as a subjective element related to the individual’s state of mind; nevertheless, the cited case law makes that temporal criterion the essential condition for determining the right of good-faith owners or possessors to the corresponding relocation or compensation. Under the challenged case law, the enactment of the Ley Indígena or, as applicable, the decrees demarcating indigenous territories is interpreted as immediately removing the properties situated therein from commerce among non-indigenous persons. This results from an erroneous understanding of Article 3 of that law because, in the First Chamber’s view, it means that non-indigenous good-faith possessors or owners may not rent, lease, or otherwise dispose of the lands belonging to them.
This consequence grossly violates the rights enshrined in the Constitución Política because, although the right to private property is not unrestricted and may be encumbered in the public interest, section 45 of the Constitution establishes prior compensation for the affected right as an indispensable requirement, with the sole exceptions being cases of war or internal disturbance. It is indisputable that indigenous territories are inalienable, not subject to acquisitive prescription, nontransferable, and reserved exclusively for the communities inhabiting them, as expressly provided ad litteram in Article 3 of the Ley Indígena. Nevertheless, for that protection to take effect, constitutional logic requires that the rights of good-faith owners and possessors holding rights in the demarcated lands first be duly respected. Thus, once they have been expropriated or relocated and the property has been placed under the dominion of the indigenous community through due process, the mandate of section 3—that non-indigenous persons may not rent, lease, or otherwise acquire such lands or properties—becomes effective; hence, the third section provides that any transfer or transaction involving land belonging to the indigenous community between indigenous and non-indigenous persons is absolutely null and void.
Because the various possessors or owners of properties located within the boundaries defined to constitute a specific indigenous territory were never expropriated or relocated, they continued exercising all the attributes inherent in ownership, including the ability to lease or sell their properties. However, the First Chamber’s interpretation entails stripping away those rights of disposition and, in turn, the rights of the counterparties with whom those transactions were conducted because, according to that Court, a de facto freezing of the property right occurred, which it uses to justify treating any form of alienation as impermissible: “From that moment onward, moreover—as the Constitutional Chamber stated in judgment 2097-2011 of 23 de febrero de 2011—the property is frozen; as a result, the individual who until then exercised possession or ownership with all its attributes is absolutely restricted in the power to dispose of his right over that land, as provided in the third section of the legal provisions.” He asserts that it is disconcerting for the First Chamber to base its position concerning the legal prohibition against disposing of property—even though its owner has received no compensation whatsoever—on a de facto freezing of the property, which, as such, lies outside the law.
In other words, it is improper for the administration of justice to justify an expansive interpretation by invoking a concept having no basis in law, namely, the de facto freezing of property. Even more incomprehensibly, judgment 2097-2011 of this Constitutional Chamber was cited, although in it this Honorable Court, far from validating the position defended by the First Chamber in judgment 920-F-S1-2015, censures it. Indeed, in judgment 2097-2011, concerning the right to property in relation to the freezing of real property, it stated: “(…) The first paragraph of Article 45 of the Constitución Política clearly reads: «Article 45.- Property is inviolable; no one may be deprived of his property except on grounds of a legally established public interest and following prior compensation in accordance with the law. In the event of war or internal disturbance, prior compensation is not indispensable.
Nevertheless, the corresponding payment shall be made no later than two years after the state of emergency has ended. […]». The constitutional text guarantees that the State may not deprive a person of property unless it has first compensated that person. This guarantee naturally means that the Public Administration may not issue provisions or carry out acts that, in practice, excessively restrict the enjoyment of that right; that is, that prevent the owner from performing all acts that may ordinarily be carried out in relation to the property. This Court has so held in several judgments; among others, it ruled as follows in judgment No. 2006—01216, at 15:48 hrs. on 7 de febrero del 2006: «[…] With regard to limitations on the right to property and the State’s duty to provide compensation when they amount to an expropriation, in judgment #2004-02162 at 12:22 on 27 de febrero del 2004, this Court stated: “Legal doctrine has defined the right to property as the right to possess a thing exclusively, enjoy it, and dispose of it, subject only to the limitations established by law or by the owner’s will.
In our Democratic State under the Rule of Law, Article 45 of the Constitución Política establishes that property is inviolable and that no one may be deprived of property except on grounds of a legally established public interest and following prior compensation in accordance with the law, from which it follows that this is not an absolute right. Accordingly, in matters similar to the one now before us, the Chamber has stated as follows: “The freezing of a parcel as an act subjecting it to a project of interest to the State is an act of confiscation of property that the State has imposed upon the assets of certain owners, and this Chamber has already deemed that conduct by the State improper, based on the general principle of equality in the bearing of public burdens, which establishes a balance among citizens in bearing them so that no single person is required to endure greater sacrifices than another.
The freezing of real property (congelamiento de fincas) entails a greater burden than that borne by other citizens, as well as an act of temporary appropriation for the benefit of the State and, of course, the State’s unjust enrichment, to the detriment of the private party’s estate (…).” It follows with absolute clarity from the quoted passage that this honorable Constitutional Chamber considers the freezing of the right of ownership or possession to be an action contrary to the Law of the Constitution. However, the First Chamber interprets this mechanism as operating in light of Articles 3 and 5 of the Ley Indígena, such that, once that law or the regulations delimiting Indigenous territories have been issued, a good-faith non-Indigenous owner or possessor can only wait to be compensated or relocated. This entails a curtailment of the right in question, because that person must refrain from exercising the powers inherent in the right of ownership or, as applicable, the partial real right (derecho real parcial) held by that person.
This Chamber has classified such a situation as contrary to the body of constitutional law (bloque de constitucionalidad): “The right of ownership has an essential content that the Chamber has defined as the power to enjoy and use the property for personal benefit (private property) or public benefit (public property). Therefore, under the pretext of imposing certain limitations in the ‘social interest,’ the public authority, whether the Legislature or the Executive Branch, may not eliminate one or more of its essential attributes (Voto 10578-2007).” For the reasons stated above, the temporal criterion developed by the First Chamber in its decision 920-F-S1-2015 as a criterion for determining good faith and, consequently, the legal viability of claims concerning properties delimited within an Indigenous area whose owners have not been compensated or relocated, is improper and contrary to the principle of equality in the distribution of public burdens and the right of ownership protected by the Political Constitution, because it necessarily entails freezing the real right held by the person.
Seeking to define the good faith of those who own or possess properties located within the area delimited as Indigenous territory under the terms established by the First Chamber is an extremely restrictive criterion that is advantageous to the Administration, because it reduces the number of expropriations or relocations to be carried out. Nevertheless, it constitutes an affront to those subject to the Administration through the violation of fundamental rights, since this Constitutional Chamber has established that the constitutional text guarantees that the State may not deprive a person of property without first compensating that person. Accordingly, good-faith owners and possessors faced no impediment to selling, leasing, renting, or otherwise disposing of the properties belonging to them if they had not been compensated for them; therefore, those acting as counterparties in such transactions would retain their good-faith status if they acquired the properties in that manner.
This is consistent with the subrogation of rights and obligations (subrogación de derechos y obligaciones) provided for in Section 8 of the Ley de Expropiaciones, under which, while the expropriation proceeding (procedimiento expropiador) is underway, the rights subject to expropriation may be transferred. This is all the more so because the Ley Indígena was enacted more than four decades ago, and numerous parcels of land remain pending compensation to date; consequently, seeking to freeze the right of ownership or its derivative rights for 40 years is contrary to the principles of reasonableness and proportionality. The position stated by the First Chamber in judgment no. 920-F-S1-2015 goes far beyond the provisions of the text of the Ley Indígena and does so at the expense of violating subjective rights (derechos subjetivos) and legitimate interests (intereses legítimos), because Article 3 is certainly unequivocal in declaring that “Indigenous reserves are inalienable, not subject to acquisitive prescription, nontransferable, and exclusively for the Indigenous communities inhabiting them.” Nevertheless, under the doctrine of Article 45 of the Political Charter, equality in the distribution of public burdens, and the principles of proportionality and reasonableness, that premise cannot be understood as stripping good-faith owners and possessors holding properties within the delimited Indigenous land of their rights, since they are entitled to exercise the powers of ownership or possession until they are compensated or relocated.
Accordingly, good faith must be determined on a case-by-case basis according to the body of evidence (acervo probatorio) in each specific case; however, seeking to establish a general standard applicable to all owners and possessors, reduced to the date of acquisition of a property for which no compensation whatsoever has been granted, not only violates Sections 18, 41, 33, and 45 of the Political Constitution but also says nothing about good faith. Indeed, assuming that an owner whose property was delimited for incorporation into an Indigenous reserve has not been compensated, that owner would face no impediment to selling or renting the property if the owner so wished. The declaration of inalienability contained in Article 3 must necessarily be understood as an attribute that operates once the property in question has been placed under the ownership of the Indigenous community—which requires following the corresponding administrative process (íter administrativo)—because a different interpretation conflicts with the legal system and contradicts the doctrine of real rights concerning their creation and extinguishment.
An example of the point made in the preceding paragraph is that Article 3 provides that “Indigenous persons may negotiate their lands only with other Indigenous persons”; this clearly requires the property first to have been formally granted to the Indigenous population. Likewise, Section 5 provides that “the expropriation and compensation studies and procedures shall be carried out by ITCO in coordination with CONAI. If non-Indigenous persons subsequently invade the reserves, the competent authorities shall immediately proceed with their eviction, without payment of any compensation.” In other words, for a person to be considered an invader of an Indigenous reserve, the right previously exercised in good faith over the land in question must have been duly compensated or indemnified, which fully accords with Article 45 of the Constitution. That is, once the property has been duly compensated and placed under the full ownership of the Indigenous community, the restrictions and limitations contemplated by the Ley Indígena apply, so that non-Indigenous persons may neither conduct transactions involving such lands nor perform any act of disposition concerning them.
In conclusion, the First Chamber’s interpretation prevents all persons who entered into transactions with good-faith owners or possessors exercising rights over properties included within the delimitation of Indigenous lands from being considered good-faith owners or possessors. Nevertheless, for all the reasons stated above, this is contrary to the Law of the Constitution, because it unlawfully restricts the right protected by Section 45 of the Political Charter and imposes burdens not provided for by law without any compensation, contrary to the principle of equality in the distribution of public burdens. It also contradicts Article 33 of the Political Charter because it entails a discriminatory interpretation that infringes the dignity of good-faith owners and possessors. Regarding Article 8 of the Ley de Expropiaciones, it notes that Section 5 of Ley Indígena No. 6172 itself refers to Ley de Expropiaciones (Ley No. 7495), since it clearly states that the respective expropriation and compensation must be carried out procedurally, if the non-Indigenous persons do not accept relocation or if relocation is not possible.
This legislation contains a legal mechanism that is not unknown to the courts but has been omitted and, even worse, not recognized in each of the rulings issued by the First Chamber: subrogation of rights. In decision no. 01214-2013 of the First Chamber of the Supreme Court of Justice, it is defined as follows: “Subrogation occurs when the creditor receives payment of the debt from a third party; the payer becomes a new creditor and succeeds to the rights, causes of action, and privileges held by the original creditor.” It is the delegation or replacement of powers in favor of others in a legal transaction (negocio jurídico); that is, one person substitutes for another in an obligation or right. This is established in our legal system by Article 790, subsection 1, of the Civil Code: “Subrogation occurs fully and by operation of law: 1) in favor of the creditor who pays from the creditor’s own funds another creditor having a superior right by reason of privilege or mortgage.” This mechanism is very clearly regulated, and the Ley de Expropiaciones recognizes and applies it.
Therefore, it is clear and unequivocal that Article 8 of the Ley de Expropiaciones permits the subrogation of rights, since it literally provides: “Article 8. Subrogation of rights. Transfers of rights that are subject to expropriation shall not prevent continuation of the expropriation proceeding. The new holder shall succeed the former holder in the latter’s obligations and rights.” (emphasis added). The claimants in the referenced proceedings have succeeded to the rights over the properties, which they acquired knowingly and while accepting the transfer of rights for the corresponding expropriation. This in no way prevents continuation of the expropriation proceeding, as stated in the provision cited above. It is unacceptable to maintain that, after more than 45 years, the State may indefinitely freeze their assets, which form part of their estates, while they wait for the law to be promptly and duly enforced, as established by Article 5 of the Ley Indígena, which states: “The expropriation and compensation studies and procedures shall be carried out by ITCO in coordination with CONAI”; these administrative procedures have not been completed to date, specifically in the claimant’s identified cases.
This has resulted in the creation of vested rights (derechos adquiridos) and settled legal situations (situaciones jurídicas consolidadas), and omitting or failing to recognize them would violate the principle of nonretroactivity of the law under Article 34 of the Constitution. The submission cites decision no. 2765-97 of this Court regarding the concepts of “vested right” and “settled legal situation.” Some of the original owners or possessors of the properties declared an Indigenous Reserve in 1977 have died or simply did not wish to continue awaiting the due and constitutionally required compensation or, where applicable, relocation. Until they have received prior compensation, as stipulated by Article 45 of the Political Charter—“no one may be deprived of his or her property except for a legally established public interest and upon prior compensation in accordance with the law”—they cannot be deprived of their right to enter into legal transactions, since doing so would also violate the freedom of commerce protected by Article 46 of the Constitution.
Among the non-Indigenous persons of those regions—farmers and ranchers—the transfer of possessory rights (derechos de posesión) over their properties has become customary, and such transactions have become common in that territory. In our legal system, Article 7 of the General Law of Public Administration grants custom, as an unwritten source of law, the force of law.
Doctrine clearly defines custom (costumbre) as “the indispensable element of a people’s culture, including the connective tissue necessary for the Constitution of a Nation, which may have relevance in the legal world and give rise to rules of conduct having the character of legal rules and therefore forming part of the legal system (ordenamiento jurídico),” and therefore we cannot fail to recognize these transfers of rights made in good faith (buena fe), as stated in Article 286 of the Código Civil. Bad faith (mala fe) is addressed in Article 285 of the same code, under which the rule for finding bad faith requires that it be fully proven by the party alleging its existence, since Article 286 prevails over Article 285 by establishing the principle of the presumption of good faith (presunción de la buena fe). He argues that we cannot violate vested rights (derechos consolidados) in order to enforce the rights of another group of legal persons, whose rights, admittedly, were violated centuries ago, because today we would be infringing the principle of equality (principio de igualdad); accordingly, the Corte Interamericana de los Derechos Humanos, in the case COMUNIDADES INDÍGENAS MIEMBROS DE LA ASOCIACIÓN LHAKA HONHAT (NUESTRA TIERRA) VS. ARGENTINA, judgment dated 6 de febrero de 2020, orders the Estado Argentino as follows: “Unanimously: 9.
The State shall, within six years from notification of this Judgment, complete the relocation of the Creole population outside the indigenous territory, under the terms set forth in paragraphs 325, 329 and 343 of this Judgment.” Paragraph 329 expressly orders: “329. In order to guarantee the victim indigenous communities’ full exercise of the right of ownership over their territory, and as follows from the agreements reached among those communities, the State, and the Organización de Familias Criollas in 2007, approved by Decreto 2786/07 and considered as precedents by Decreto 1498/14, measures must be implemented to relocate the Creole population outside the indigenous territory defined in accordance with what has already been ordered (supra para. 327). To achieve that end, the Court orders the State to carry out the relocation of the Creole population in accordance with the following guidelines: a) The State must promote procedures aimed at the voluntary relocation of the Creole population, seeking to avoid compulsory evictions (desalojos compulsivos). b) To guarantee the foregoing, during the first three years from notification of this Judgment, state authorities—whether judicial, administrative, or of any other kind, and whether provincial or national—may not carry out the forced or compulsory eviction of Creole residents. c) Without prejudice to the agreement process established pursuant to Decreto 2786/07 from 2007 onward and described in this Judgment, the State must make mediation or arbitration proceedings available to the interested parties to determine the conditions of relocation; if those proceedings are not pursued, recourse may be had to the appropriate judicial proceedings.
In any of the aforementioned proceedings, the participants may assert their claims and any rights they believe they possess, but they may not challenge the indigenous communal property right determined in this Judgment or, consequently, the propriety of relocation outside the indigenous territory. Any authorities adjudicating such proceedings may not adopt decisions that prevent compliance with this Judgment. d) In all cases, the competent authorities, whether administrative, judicial, or of any other nature, must seek to ensure that the relocation of the Creole population is carried out while safeguarding that population’s rights. To that end, effective resettlement or access to productive land with adequate on-site infrastructure must be made possible (including the establishment of pastures and sufficient access to water for production and consumption, as well as the installation of necessary fencing), together with, where appropriate, technical assistance and training for productive activities.” He insists that in Costa Rica we have experienced uprisings between indigenous and non-indigenous peoples due to delays and the misinterpretation of legal rules, leaving subrogated or other possessors (poseedores subrogados o no), who are unquestionably acting in good faith, defenseless and their constitutional rights violated.
He questions why the transfer of ancestral ownership or possession (posesión ancestral) to new holders should be invalidated, especially when such transfers have been made from parents to children, and asks where such a prohibition is established. The Sala Primera has not recognized these transfers of rights, asserting that the holders are possessors in bad faith, although this has not been duly proven in any of its decisions, since that court imposes a rebuttable presumption (presunción iuris tantum) under which bad faith applies to all persons who acquired an ownership or possessory right (derecho de propiedad o posesorio) in territories designated to form part of indigenous territory; this, however, contradicts the provisions of the Código Civil concerning the burden of proof (carga de la prueba), under which good faith is presumed unless the opposing party proves otherwise. Regarding Article 2 of the Ley Indígena, he states that voto 920-2015, which is under discussion, likewise bases its reasoning on an erroneous interpretation of that provision and thereby violates provisions of constitutional rank.
That article literally provides: “Article 2.- Indigenous communities have full legal capacity to acquire rights and undertake obligations of every kind. They are not state entities. The reserves mentioned in Article One of this Law are hereby declared to be the property of the indigenous communities. The Procuraduría General de la República shall register those reserves in the Registro Público in the names of the respective indigenous communities. The reserves shall be registered free of all encumbrances (gravámenes). Transfers from the State to indigenous communities shall be free of charge, shall not be subject to Registry fees, and shall be exempt from every other type of tax burden under the terms established in the Ley de CONAI.” The article in question grants rights in rem (derechos reales) to indigenous communities without having expropriated or relocated non-indigenous persons who are owners or good-faith possessors, a situation that violates the corpus of constitutional law (bloque de constitucionalidad), since Article 45 of the Carta Magna provides no exception within which the provision at issue could fall.
Additionally, the claimed unconstitutionality is directed at the Sala Primera’s interpretation, which states, among other propositions, as follows: “In other words, from the moment land is incorporated into an indigenous reserve through the respective Decreto—whether one of those listed in the first provision of the Law or one of those subsequently implementing it—a non-indigenous person who until then had exercised possession or acts of ownership in good faith has the right to be relocated or, failing that, expropriated and compensated, precisely because that person’s right conflicts with the right in rem of ownership held by the indigenous community, as granted to it by the second paragraph of Article 2 of the Ley Indígena.” Specifically, the cited position is based on the following premise in Article 2: “The reserves mentioned in Article One of this Law are hereby declared to be the property of the indigenous communities”; however, the interpretation set forth supra violates Articles 18, 33, and 45 of the Constitución Política.
The Sala Primera considers that Article 2 positions indigenous communities as acquirers of the right in rem of ownership over the properties delimited by the Poder Ejecutivo for allocation to that population; however, this departs from the spirit of the provision and conflicts with the legal system. The interpretive error is so significant that the Sala disregards other legal elements—some even contained in the same article—that complement the meaning of Article 2. Such is the case with Article 8 of Decreto 5904-G, published in La Gaceta 70, Alcance 60 of 10 de abril de 1976, which is mentioned in Article 1 of the Ley Indígena and pertains to the reserves referred to in Article 2 of that law: “Article 8°—If, when this decree enters into force, non-indigenous persons have acquired ownership of, are in lawful possession (posesión legal) of, or are precarious possessors (poseedores en precario) of farms or land located within the reserves, they shall be expropriated and compensated in accordance with the procedures established in law N° 2825 of 14 de octubre de 1961 and its amendments.
If non-indigenous persons subsequently encroach upon the Reserves, the competent authorities shall immediately evict them without payment of any compensation.” The foregoing demonstrates the Poder Ejecutivo’s awareness of the existence of persons who owned or possessed in good faith land within the boundaries established by executive decree to determine the lands that would be allocated to indigenous peoples, a provision also incorporated into Article 5 of the Ley Indígena. Additionally, Article 2 of the Ley Indígena itself establishes the duty of the Procuraduría General de la República to register the indigenous communities’ reserves in the Registro Público; however, that mandate must unquestionably be carried out in accordance with Article 5 of the Ley Indígena, Article 8 of Decreto 5904-G, and Article 45 of the Constitución Política—that is, the prescribed administrative process (íter administrativo) for compensating or relocating persons who were owners or good-faith possessors must be followed.
Put more simply, Article 2 does indeed establish that indigenous reserves are the property of the populations inhabiting them, and that is so; nevertheless, by constitutional mandate, that provision cannot be understood as a de facto expropriation (expropiación de facto) of citizens who in good faith inhabit the lands delimited for those purposes, and respect for those rights is therefore mandatory. It is indisputable that indigenous territories are the property of the native communities; however, disregarding individual rights (derechos subjetivos) and due process (debido proceso), which affords minimum guarantees to private persons, would be contrary to a democratic State governed by the rule of law (Estado de Derecho). The interpretation adopted by the Sala Primera flagrantly contradicts the right to private property (derecho a la propiedad privada) established in Article 45 of the Carta Política.
That judicial ruling violates individual rights and causes loss and damage (daños y perjuicios) to good-faith possessors and owners whose lands were delimited to form the indigenous Reserve at issue; moreover, that situation imposes an illegitimate burden on non-indigenous persons in that position because the encumbrance is imposed without the prior compensation required by Article 45 of the Constitution. Accordingly, Article 2 is addressed in a biased manner by the Sala Primera in decision no. 920-2015, discussed supra, to justify the de facto freezing of properties belonging to good-faith owners and possessors, thereby revealing the unlawfulness of that legal interpretation because, as explained supra, it constitutes a violation of the right to private property.
Likewise, the provision of Article 2, as interpreted by the First Chamber, starkly contradicts the doctrine concerning the creation and termination of real rights (derechos reales), since there is no act transferring the right of ownership or possession; rather, according to that Court of Cassation, that right is simply taken from the holder of the right, whether owner or possessor (without prior compensation), a situation that has no basis in our legal system, given that the absence of prior compensation is accepted only in cases of war or internal unrest. It should be noted that the challenged case law states that owners and good-faith possessors are barred from disposing of their real property because “their right conflicts with the real right of ownership held by the indigenous community, as attributed to it by the second paragraph of Article 2 of the Ley Indígena”; however, that assertion, in addition to the foregoing, contradicts section 484 of the Código Civil, concerning the methods of acquiring title (dominio).
Furthermore, it disregards the doctrine relating to the acquisition, transfer, and extinguishment of real rights. According to Manuel Albaladejo, such rights may be acquired originally or derivatively (among other mechanisms), the former encompassing cases of occupancy and acquisitive prescription (usucapión), while under the derivative method there is a preexisting right that is transferred by the holder of the right to the acquirer. These criteria are disregarded by the First Chamber in the challenged case law, because the reasoning followed therein does not correspond to the methods of acquiring real rights, since it grants the indigenous community a real right that has not left the legal sphere of the non-indigenous owners and good-faith possessors. This is because the criteria for the loss or extinguishment of real rights have not been met; according to Meza Lázarus: “... when a real right is lost, it does not necessarily cease to exist in law, and there is always a concomitant acquisition by another party; however, when a real right is extinguished, its holder not only loses it, but it ceases to exist in law.” In other words, in observance of the body of constitutional law (bloque de constitucionalidad), before the real right of ownership may be transferred to indigenous communities, that real right must first leave the legal sphere of the preceding owner or good-faith possessor through legitimate mechanisms.
In light of the foregoing, it is evident that, because no legal act or transaction has occurred that entails the extinguishment or loss of the real right under the circumstances set forth in section 5 of the Ley Indígena (in the case of owners and good-faith possessors, of course), section 2 cannot be interpreted as creating, ipso facto, a real right of ownership in favor of indigenous communities over the territories demarcated for that purpose. This is because the State has a duty to respect the individual rights (derechos subjetivos) and legitimate interests (intereses legítimos) of non-indigenous persons who, in good faith, exercised title over real property within those jurisdictions, in accordance with Articles 18, 33, and 45 of the Constitución Política. Furthermore, pursuant to section 45, the mechanisms governing legal transactions (tráfico jurídico) for purposes of the acquisition and extinguishment or loss of real rights must be respected.
The petitioner insists that, in conclusion, it is clear that the interpretation adopted by the First Chamber, embodied in ruling 920-2015, authorizes the Administration to engage in unlawful material action (actuación material ilegítima), insofar as constitutionally protected rights acquired in good faith are disregarded through the imposition of a de facto freeze, conduct that has been censured by this honorable Constitutional Chamber and that thereby exceeds the power of expropriation (potestad expropiatoria) through a de facto administrative action (vía de hecho). Consideration must be given to the statement by Nombre10274 and Tomás Ramón Fernández, who explain: “In the specific sense relevant here, a de facto administrative action is any encroachment upon property, rights, and legitimate proprietary interests that originates from the Administration or its agents or delegates and that, by its substance, amounts to a true expropriation, (...), yet does not conform to the limits defining the power of expropriation or, even within those limits, is not exercised through the specific procedural channel prescribed by law, but merely as a matter of fact.” Section 45 of the Constitution is unequivocal in characterizing private property as inviolable and makes its taking for reasons of public interest conditional upon prior compensation for the right in question.
Likewise, section 5 of the Ley Indígena and Article 8 of Decreto Ejecutivo 5904-G safeguard that constitutional mandate by recognizing the rights of owners and possessors who exercised those rights in good faith within the territories demarcated for allocation to indigenous populations. Therefore, out of respect for Constitutional Law and Human Rights, it is unacceptable to legitimize the de facto freeze underlying the position of the First Chamber of the Corte Suprema de Justicia, since doing so would broaden the scope of the power of expropriation by validating restrictions that prevent citizens from fully exercising, in any manner, the incidents of ownership (atributos del dominio) without having received compensation for them. Regarding the reiteration of ruling 920-F-S1-2015, the petitioner states that, under the standard of this honorable Constitutional Chamber, constitutional review of a particular line of case law requires at least three rulings reaching the same conclusion; in this instance, the temporal criterion advanced in decision 920-F-S1-2015 was repeated in subsequent judgments of the First Chamber, including judgments 2046-F-S1-2020 and 2878-F-S1-2020.
Furthermore, decision 920-F-S1-2015 has been invoked repeatedly by the Tribunal Contencioso Administrativo y Civil de Hacienda, including in rulings 023-2019-IV and 17-2016-VII, in which the temporal criterion advanced by the First Chamber in the aforementioned decision was applied to deny compensation or relocation to owners or possessors. Accordingly, the petitioner requests that Article 2 of the Ley Indígena be declared unconstitutional, together with the line of case law followed by the First Chamber of the Corte Suprema Justicia in rulings 920-FS1-2015, 2046-F-S1-2020 and 2878-F-S1-2020 insofar as it concerns the interpretation of Articles 2, 3, and 5 of the Ley Indígena and the omission and nonrecognition of Article 8 of the Ley de Expropiaciones.
Justice Castillo Víquez drafts the opinion; and,
Whereas:
This Chamber finds that the petitioner has standing to bring this action of unconstitutionality pursuant to Article 75, first paragraph, of the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional, as it has been established that the challenged provision and case law are applicable in the proceeding being processed under case file no. 17-000087-1028-CA. Indeed, after reviewing that case file, it can be verified that the Procuraduría General de la República expressly refers to the challenged case law in its answer to the complaint. It has likewise been established that the corresponding constitutional challenge was raised in that proceeding.
However, pursuant to Article 9 of the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional, this Court may dismiss any application on the merits, including upon its filing or in limine litis, when it finds that sufficient grounds exist. Such is the case in the sub lite, as will be examined in the following recitals (considerandos).
The petitioner challenges Article 2 of the Ley Indígena, which provides:
“Article 2.- Indigenous communities have full legal capacity to acquire rights and undertake obligations of every kind. They are not state entities. The reserves referred to in Article 1 of this Law are hereby declared the property of the indigenous communities. The Procuraduría General de la República shall register those reserves in the Registro Público in the names of the respective indigenous communities. The reserves shall be registered free of all encumbrances (gravámenes). Transfers from the State to the indigenous communities shall be free of charge, shall not be subject to registration fees, and shall be exempt from all other types of taxes in accordance with the terms established in the Ley de CONAI.” The petitioner also challenges the case law of the Sala Primera de la Corte Suprema de Justicia concerning Articles 2, 3 and 5 of the Ley Indígena, as set forth in judgments 920-FS1-2015, 2046-F-S1-2020 and 2878-F-S1-2020.
The petitioner alleges a violation of Articles 18, 33, 34, 41, 45 and 46 of the Constitución Política. Specifically, it is alleged that the Sala Primera de la Corte Suprema de Justicia improperly interpreted Articles 2, 3 and 5 of the Ley Indígena with respect to the requirements that must be met for the relocation (reubicación) or expropriation (expropiación) provided for in Article 5 of that same body of law to apply to non-indigenous persons who are good-faith owners or possessors (propietarios o poseedores de buena fe). The petitioner specifically challenges the requirement—for ownership or possession to qualify as being in good faith—that the person must have exercised acts of possession or acted as owner before the Ley Indígena or the decrees delimiting the indigenous reserves. It is alleged that this results from an expansive and erroneous interpretation of the cited legislation, which establishes no such temporal criterion and entails recognizing a de facto freezing of the property right (derecho real) held by the person over the property in question, without the prior and necessary compensation having been paid.
This is compounded by the fact that more than four decades have passed since the Ley Indígena was enacted, and numerous parcels remain pending compensation to this day. The petitioner argues that, under a proper interpretation of the relevant legislation, good-faith owners and possessors faced no impediment to selling, leasing, renting, or otherwise transferring their properties if they had not been compensated; therefore, those who acted as counterparties in such transactions would retain their good-faith status if they acquired the properties in that manner. He asserts that this is fully consistent with the subrogation of rights and obligations (subrogación de derechos y obligaciones) provided for in Article 8 of the Ley de Expropiaciones, which must apply in these cases. He complains of the hollowing out of the rights of good-faith owners and possessors who hold properties within the delimited indigenous territory and who have the right to exercise the incidents of ownership or possession until they are compensated or relocated.
He states that good faith must be determined on a case-by-case basis, according to the body of evidence (acervo probatorio) in each specific case, because establishing a general standard applicable to all owners or possessors, reduced to the date of acquisition of a property for which no compensation has been granted, says nothing about good faith. With specific reference to Article 2 of the Ley Indígena, it is alleged that this provision has also been improperly interpreted because—according to the petitioner—although that Article does establish that indigenous reserves are the property of the indigenous populations inhabiting them, this cannot be understood as a de facto expropriation of persons who in good faith inhabit the lands delimited for such purposes, nor can it be understood as the ipso facto creation of an ownership right in favor of the indigenous communities. Ultimately, he alleges that the manner in which the cited legislation has been interpreted means that owners or possessors are prevented from exercising or disposing in any way of the incidents of ownership without first having obtained compensation for it.
ARTICLE 2 OF THE LEY INDÍGENA. With specific reference to Article 2 of the Ley Indígena, it can be inferred from a comprehensive reading of the filing that the petitioner’s objections concern an alleged improper interpretation and application of that Article, rather than the actual content of the provision itself. In any event, it should be noted that this Chamber has repeatedly held that this Article is compatible with constitutional law (Derecho de la Constitución). Most recently, in vote no. 2022005033 issued at 9:20 on 2 de marzo de 2022, this Chamber ruled, as relevant here, that:
“II.- SUBJECT MATTER OF THE ACTION. The petitioner challenges Executive Decree no. 7267-G of 9 de agosto de 1977, which established the Reserva Indígena de Cocles, now the Reserva Indígena Bribrí de Këköldi. The petitioner also challenges Articles 1 and 2 of Law no. 6172, Ley Indígena, which provide, respectively, that:
“Article 1.- Indigenous persons are those who constitute ethnic groups directly descended from pre-Columbian civilizations and who preserve their own identity.
The reserves established in Executive Decrees numbers 5904-G of 10 de abril de 1976, 6036-G of 12 de junio de 1976, 6037-G of 15 de junio de 1976, 7267-G and 7268-G of 20 de agosto de 1977, as well as the Reserva Indígena Guaymi de Conteburica, are hereby declared indigenous reserves.
The boundaries established for the reserves in the cited decrees may not be modified so as to reduce their area except by express law.” “Article 2.- Indigenous communities have full legal capacity to acquire rights and undertake obligations of every kind. They are not state entities. The reserves referred to in Article 1 of this Law are hereby declared the property of the indigenous communities. The Procuraduría General de la República shall register those reserves in the Registro Público in the names of the respective indigenous communities. The reserves shall be registered free of all encumbrances. Transfers from the State to the indigenous communities shall be free of charge, shall not be subject to registration fees, and shall be exempt from all other types of taxes in accordance with the terms established in the Ley de CONAI.”
This Chamber has already ruled on the constitutionality of the cited Articles 1 and 2 of the Ley Indígena. Thus, in judgment no. 0836 issued at 17:36 on 10 de febrero de 1998, it ruled:
“II.- LEY INDIGENA: The petitioner also challenges paragraph 1) of Article 1 and paragraph 2) of Article 2 of Ley Indígena number 6172 of dieciséis de noviembre de mil novecientos setenta y siete, which provide, respectively, as follows:
“The reserves established in Executive Decrees numbers 5904-G of 10 de abril de mil novecientos setenta y seis, 6036-G of doce de junio de mil novecientos setenta y seis, 6037-G of quince de junio de mil novecientos setenta y seis, 7267-G and 7268-G of veinte de agosto de mil novecientos setenta y siete, as well as the Reserva Indígena Guaymí de Burica, are hereby declared indigenous reserves.” “The reserves referred to in Article 1 of this Law are hereby declared the property of the indigenous communities.” The petitioner states that this legislation creates a model of ownership (propiedad) unknown to legal doctrine, namely, ownership by a collectivity, in which title is vested in a communal legal entity created by the Law itself, while at the same time title is granted to individual natural persons.- In this regard, it must be noted that indigenous reserves (reservas indígenas) had already been created by the Vacant Lands Law (Ley de Terrenos Baldíos) number 13 of diez de enero de mil novecientos treinta y nueve, Article 8 of which provided that “…an area deemed reasonable by the Executive Branch, in places where indigenous tribes exist, is declared inalienable and the exclusive property of the indigenous people, so that they may preserve our native race and be protected from future injustices.” This provision, which might be understood as programmatic, was expanded by Decree number 45 of tres de diciembre de mil novecientas cuarenta y cinco, which created the Board for the Protection of the Nation’s Aboriginal Races (Junta de Protección de las Razas Aborígenes de la Nación), whose basic function was to protect aboriginal lands.
Subsequently, Executive Decree number 34 of quince de noviembre de mil novecientos cincuenta y seis declared the Boruca, Térraba, Salitre Cabagra and China Kichá Indigenous Reserves. These provisions even acquired a rank superior to that of a statute, pursuant to Article 7 of the Political Constitution (Constitución Política), insofar as the Legislative Assembly, by Law number 2330 of nueve de abril de mil novecientos cincuenta y nueve (La Gaceta number 84 of 17 de abril de 1959), approved Convention number 107 of the International Labour Organization concerning the “Protection and Integration of Indigenous and Other Tribal and Semi-Tribal Populations,” which, among other things, recognizes their legitimate right to hold title to the lands they own, whether individually or collectively, and provides that succession shall be governed by the customary principles of their peoples. The Land and Colonization Law (Ley de Tierras y Colonización) number 2825 of catorce de octubre de mil novecientos sesenta y uno also incorporated an entire chapter on the subject for the purpose of protecting those lands and native peoples.
It was pursuant to this legislation that Executive Decrees of mil novecientos sesenta y seis, number 11 of dos de abril and number 26 of doce de noviembre, ordered that the three indigenous reserves created in mil novecientos sesenta y seis be registered in the name of the Instituto de Tierras y Colonización, now the Instituto de Desarrollo Agrario; this occurred before the enactment of Law number 5251 of once de julio de mil novecientos setenta y tres, which created the Comisión Nacional de Asuntos Indígenas. The transitory provision (transitorio) of the latter law establishes that the Instituto de Tierras y Colonización would convey the lands to the indigenous people through possessory-information proceedings (trámite de información posesoria). That transitory provision was amended by Law number 5651 of trece de diciembre de mil novecientos setenta y cuatro, which reinstated the concepts of inalienability (inalienabilidad), as indicated in the preceding recital (considerando).
This also means that the Nombre82221 Indigenous Reserve was subject to a special regime long before the State took action to regularize the status of indigenous reserves through Executive Decree number 5904-G of once de marzo de mil novecientos setenta y seis (for those of Chirripó, Guaymí de Coto Brus, Estrella, Guatuso and Talamanca), or Executive Decree number 6037-G itself of veintiséis de marzo de ese año. What the provisions challenged by the petitioner do is confer statutory status upon those Reserves by expressly citing, in Article 1), paragraph 1), the decrees that established them and providing them with more detailed treatment through the Regulations to the Indigenous Law (Reglamento de la Ley Indígena), (Executive Decree number 8487-G of 26 de abril de 1978).- Article 2, paragraph 2), transfers ownership of those reserves, which belonged to the Instituto de Tierras y Colonización, to the indigenous communities.
Through this legislation, the State fully complied with Convention 107 of the International Labour Organization, ratified by Law number 2330 of nueve de abril de mil novecientos cincuenta y nueve, Article 11 of which provides: “The right of ownership, collective or individual, of the members of the populations concerned over the lands traditionally occupied by them shall be recognized,” and Article 13, subsection 2), of which provides: “Measures shall be adopted to prevent persons who are not members of these populations from taking advantage of their customs or of their members’ lack of knowledge of the laws in order to obtain ownership or use of lands belonging to them.” With regard to the Indigenous Law (Ley Indígena), this Chamber has already explained that it brings the legislation into conformity with Convention 107, stating as follows when responding to a Legislative Consultation (Consulta Legislativa) (decision 3003-92):
“Costa Rica has signed numerous international instruments that directly or indirectly protect the rights of minorities generally and, in particular, those of indigenous peoples. Regarding the latter, our country signed I.L.O. Convention 107, entitled the ‘Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries,’ adopted in 1957 and approved in 1959 by our country’s Legislative Assembly through Law N°2330, as a first step toward protecting indigenous populations and placing primary responsibility for the process upon the Government. That Convention, now amended by Convention 169, which the Legislative Assembly has submitted for consultation, strengthens that protection and respect through a more universal conception of substantive and legal equality.- Likewise, the Indigenous Law, 6172 of 29 de noviembre de 1977, implemented and, in some respects, exceeded the international obligations assumed by Costa Rica, because it reserved substantial portions of its territory for indigenous people, seeking to prevent their registration as the private property of others.
It granted their communities full legal personality and legal capacity (personería y capacidad jurídica) to direct their activities and make decisions concerning their property; it allowed them to exploit the natural reserves within their territories and prohibited the removal of archaeological objects from their burial grounds.” In short, Article 1, paragraph 1), and Article 2, paragraph 2), of the Indigenous Law, which are being challenged, are not unconstitutional.
The petitioner also challenges Article 3 of the Indigenous Law, which provides:
“Indigenous reserves are inalienable and not subject to acquisition by prescription (imprescriptibles), non-transferable, and exclusively for the indigenous communities that inhabit them. Non-indigenous persons may not rent, lease, purchase, or otherwise acquire land or properties located within these reserves. Indigenous persons may negotiate their lands only with other indigenous persons. Any transfer or negotiation of land or improvements thereon within indigenous reserves between indigenous and non-indigenous persons is absolutely null and void, with the corresponding legal consequences.” He asserts that this provision imposes restrictions on ownership because it contains an absolute prohibition against transferring property located within indigenous reserves between indigenous and non-indigenous persons; prohibits indigenous persons from using the doctrine of acquisitive prescription (usucapión); prevents non-indigenous Costa Ricans from acquiring real property within an indigenous reserve; and denies indigenous persons the right to dispose of the property, even though their possession is recognized.
He argues that such limitations on ownership should have been approved by a qualified majority (mayoría calificada), which must be expressly recorded. The petitioner’s argument is unsound. As stated above, what the Indigenous Law does is transfer to indigenous communities the indigenous reserves that had been registered in the name of the Instituto de Tierras y Colonización. Thus, this does not involve imposing limitations in the social interest upon private property, but rather State-owned lands awarded in the name of indigenous persons; consequently, an analysis concerning a qualified majority is unnecessary. The Chamber finds—as previously noted—that this provision implements concepts contained in I.L.O. Convention 107, which reflects a comprehensive concern that indigenous peoples, regarded collectively, be able effectively to preserve their rights over ancestral territories, encompassing not only the land itself but also the waters, marine areas, plants, animals, and other natural resources that together form the social, cultural, material, and spiritual bonds of indigenous life.
These provisions seek to prevent dispossession, whether through physical removal or environmental degradation, which has had catastrophic effects on indigenous peoples, and thereby to defend the right of those peoples to preserve their territories for future generations.” (emphasis not in the original) Subsequently, in judgment (voto) no. 2011-000281 at 9:36 hours on 14 de enero de 2011, this Chamber again ruled on indigenous ownership and its protection under Constitutional Law (Derecho de la Constitución). Specifically, it stated that:
“III.- On constitutional legal protection concerning Indigenous matters. A principle recognizing Indigenous peoples can be inferred from the Political Constitution itself, grounded in the idea of State protection to preserve their culture, and reaffirmed in International Treaties duly ratified by Costa Rica. With regard to domestic legislation, the first regulation addressing this situation is found in the Vacant Lands Law (Ley de Terrenos Baldíos), number 13 of January 10, 1939, Article 8 of which provides: “[...] a prudent area, as determined by the Executive Branch, in places where their Tribes exist, is hereby declared inalienable and the exclusive property of the Indigenous people, so as to preserve our Indigenous race and free them from future injustices.” This provision was expanded by Decree number 45 of December 3, 1945, which created the National Board for the Protection of Aboriginal Races (Junta de Protección de las Razas Aborígenes de la Nación), whose basic function was aimed at protecting Aboriginal lands so as not to leave them unprotected and to preserve their ethnicity.
Subsequently, by Executive Decree number 34 of November 15, 1956, the Indigenous reservations (reservas indígenas) Nombre82221, Salitre Cabagra and China Kichá were established. By Law number 2330 of April 9, 1959, the Legislative Assembly approved Convention number 107 of the International Labour Organization concerning the “Protection and Integration of Indigenous and Other Tribal and Semi-Tribal Populations,” which recognizes their legitimate right to hold ownership of their lands, whether individually or collectively, and provides that succession shall be governed by the principles of the peoples’ customs. The Land and Colonization Law (Ley de Tierras y Colonización), number 2825 of October 14, 1961, also incorporated a chapter on the subject for the purpose of protecting those lands and the Indigenous races. On the basis of this legislation, Executive Decrees number 11 of April 2, 1996, and 26 of November 12 ordered the three Indigenous reservations created in 1956 to be registered in the name of the Instituto de Tierras y Colonización, now the Instituto de Desarrollo Agrario (see the judgment of the First Chamber of the Supreme Court of Justice, No.223, issued at 15:30 hours on July 6, 1990).
International Law, for its part, has been generous in recognizing the rights of these communities. Notable among such instruments are the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Articles 1, 2.1, 7, 17.1 and 27), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (27), the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1.1 and 2), the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man (2, 13 and 23), and the American Convention on Human Rights (24 and 26). The International Labour Organization has been a pioneer in the protection of Indigenous peoples. Conventions numbers 107 and 169 contain a detailed enumeration of rights recognized for these peoples. Both Conventions—107 and 169—regulate the land tenure regime (régimen de propiedad) of Indigenous lands in Part II. Furthermore, constitutional case law numbers 1786-93, issued at 16:21 hours on April 21, 1993, and 06229-99, issued at 14:30 hours on August 11, 1999, among others, recognizes the special protection of their territory and culture by reason of their conditions of vulnerability, both present and past, subject only to the limitations that human rights themselves impose upon the conduct of all human beings.
There can therefore be no doubt that the Costa Rican State has broadly recognized the rights belonging to the Indigenous groups inhabiting the country. It has also been held that persons belonging to Indigenous communities have the right to live on the lands where they have historically been settled, and the State must fully guarantee the enjoyment of this fundamental right. Our constitutional case law thus recognizes that International Conventions, such as ILO Convention N° 169 (Law 7316 of November 3, 1992), have a higher rank and afford Indigenous persons and communities a greater degree of protection—that is, a “high level of protection”—with respect to those human rights enshrined in the Political Constitution itself, and therefore require the ordinary Courts to respect decisions arising within the communities themselves and through their representatives by virtue of the customs and self-determination (autodeterminación) of those Indigenous peoples.
IV.On the property of Indigenous communities. It is important to address the collective or communal nature of Indigenous property, because it belongs not to individuals but to the community as such. Indigenous people have a community tradition involving a communal form of collective land ownership (propiedad colectiva de la tierra), in the sense that ownership is vested not in an individual but in the group and its community. By virtue of their very existence, Indigenous people have the right to live freely in their own territories; the close relationship that Indigenous people maintain with the land must be recognized and understood as the fundamental basis of their cultures, spiritual life, integrity and economic survival. The Development Associations, as a “community structure,” have authority to allocate possession (posesión) of the land in order to guarantee access to it for all Indigenous residents; and because Indigenous property is collective in nature, the rules governing individual rights for the protection of individual ownership and possession established for that purpose in the legal system are inapplicable.
Article 3 of the Indigenous Law (Ley Indígena) provides that the reservations shall be governed by Indigenous people through their traditional community structures or pursuant to the laws of the Republic governing them. The Indigenous Law declared the reservations mentioned in Article one of that law to be the property of the Indigenous communities. As can be seen, attention must be paid to the control mechanisms used within the Indigenous populations themselves, and when that is not possible, the customs of the Indigenous population must always be taken into consideration. It is evident that, in our country, most Indigenous populations have attained a fairly advanced degree of cultural development and, under their current form of organization through Development Associations, efforts are made to resolve conflicts internally; only in extreme cases is recourse had to the coercive process of the Courts, which in any event are required to comply with the provisions of the aforementioned international conventions.
Otherwise, “[...] the fundamental right of Indigenous people to have their own representative bodies and to act autonomously in the defense of their rights would be disregarded [...]” (see Constitutional Chamber decision N° 2005-06856, issued at 10:02 hours on June 1, 2005). For Indigenous communities, their relationship with the land is not merely a matter of possession and production, but rather a material and spiritual element that they must fully enjoy, including for the purpose of preserving their cultural legacy and transmitting it to future generations. The customary law (derecho consuetudinario) of Indigenous peoples must be given special consideration; for the purposes at issue, because possession of the land arises from custom, it should suffice for Indigenous communities lacking legal title (título real) to the land to obtain official recognition of their ownership and its subsequent registration.
An Indigenous reservation is original agrarian property of a collective nature, and no right of individual ownership or possession may be asserted over it to the detriment of the community to which it belongs; the entire community is its owner, and it cannot be partitioned into private property precisely because its legal nature is intended for the collective. In light of the case law on the human rights of Indigenous people issued by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, it was held that an international human rights treaty has autonomous meaning and therefore its terms cannot be equated with the meanings attributed to them under domestic law. It further stated that such human rights treaties are living instruments whose interpretation must adapt to changing times and, in particular, to current living conditions. It has been held that Article 29.b of the Convention provides that no provision may be interpreted so as to “restrict the enjoyment or exercise of any right or freedom recognized by virtue of the laws of any State Party or by virtue of another convention to which one of said States is a party.” Accordingly, if we undertake an evolutionary interpretation of international human rights protection instruments and also take into account the applicable rules of interpretation and, pursuant to Article 29.b of the Convention—which prohibits a restrictive interpretation of rights—that Court has held that Article 21 of the Convention protects the right to property in a sense that encompasses, among other things, the rights of members of Indigenous communities within the framework of communal property (propiedad comunal).
Thus, this Chamber has concluded that Article 2 of the Indigenous Law is duly grounded in compliance with a series of international human rights obligations and, in particular, seeks to ensure that Indigenous peoples “may effectively preserve their rights over ancestral territories, comprising not only the land itself but also the waters, marine areas, plants, animals and other natural resources that collectively form the social, cultural, material and spiritual bonds of Indigenous life.” Far from being unconstitutional, this is fully compatible with Constitutional Law (Derecho de la Constitución).
Likewise, that judgment expressly addressed the relationship between Articles 2 and 5 of the Indigenous Law in relation to Article 45 of the Political Constitution. This Court ruled as follows:
“V.- Finally, with specific regard to the alleged violation of Article 45 of the Political Constitution, the petitioners acknowledge that Article 5 of the Indigenous Law provides—insofar as relevant—that:
“Article 5º.- In the case of non-Indigenous persons who are owners or good-faith possessors (poseedores de buena fe) within Indigenous reservations, the ITCO shall relocate them to other similar lands if they so desire; if it is not possible to relocate them or they do not accept relocation, it shall expropriate and compensate them in accordance with the procedures established in the Expropriation Law (Ley de Expropiaciones).” That is, the Indigenous Law itself expressly recognizes the obligation to expropriate owners and good-faith possessors, precisely in protection of constitutional Article 45. As may be inferred from a reading of the petition, rather than a potential defect in the substance of the statutory provisions challenged in this action, what appears to be alleged here is a potential failure to comply with the aforementioned Article 5 of the Indigenous Law, as well as a dispute concerning its proper interpretation and application in certain circumstances.
This neither entails nor implies that Articles 1 and 2 of the Indigenous Law—insofar as they establish certain Indigenous reservations and declare them to be the property of Indigenous communities—are unconstitutional. Should a particular person not yet have been expropriated, that person may assert the corresponding claim before the appropriate authorities. It should be recalled that this Chamber has stated that the:
“(...) the purpose of a constitutional challenge proceeding (proceso de inconstitucionalidad) is not to address an individual injury that the petitioner may allege; rather, its purpose is to serve the general interest in ensuring that acts governed by public law and the rules comprising the legal system conform to Constitutional Law (Derecho de la Constitución).” (judgment no. 2013-002902 issued at 14:30 hours on 5 de marzo de 2013).”
These considerations are fully applicable to the case under review, as there is no reason whatsoever to justify departing from that position.
CASE LAW OF THE FIRST CHAMBER OF THE SUPREME COURT OF JUSTICE. Moreover, the petitioner’s principal objections are confined to the line of case law of the First Chamber concerning sections 2, 3, and 5 of the Ley Indígena, set forth—among others—in judgments 920-FS1-2015, 2046-F-S1-2020, and 2878-F-S1-2020. Recently, in judgment no. 2022-024725 issued at 12:41 hours on 19 de octubre de 2022, this Court ruled on that line of case law—with respect to objections analogous to those raised in this new action—and held as follows:
“II.- Subject matter of the action. The petitioner brings this action seeking a declaration that the case law of the First Chamber of Cassation (judgments nos. 000920-F-S1-2015 issued at 14:30 hours on 6 de agosto de 2015, 002848-A-S1-2020 issued at 10:10 hours on 3 de diciembre de 2020, 002878-F-S1-2020 issued at 10:35 hours on 10 de diciembre de 2020, and 000681-F-S1-2021 issued at 10:00 hours on 25 de marzo de 2021), concerning Article 3 of the Ley Indígena, is unconstitutional because it is contrary to sections 9, 11, 41, and 45 of the Constitución Política; the principles of good faith (buena fe), legitimate expectations (confianza legítima), and non-confiscation (no confiscación); and Article 21, subsection 2, of the CADH. The petitioner states that Article 3 of the Ley Indígena provides: ‘Indigenous reserves (reservas indígenas) are inalienable, not subject to acquisitive prescription (imprescriptibles), nontransferable, and exclusively for the indigenous communities that inhabit them.
Non-indigenous persons may not lease, rent, purchase, or otherwise acquire land or properties located within these reserves. Indigenous persons may only (sic) transact concerning their lands with other indigenous persons. Any transfer or transaction involving land or improvements thereon within indigenous reserves, between indigenous and non-indigenous persons, is absolutely null and void, with the corresponding legal consequences (…)’. The petitioner argues that, under the challenged case law, persons who obtain land in indigenous reserves in reliance on the Registro Nacional are purchasers in bad faith, even where there is no registry notation indicating that the acquired property is located within an indigenous reserve. The petitioner alleges that this criterion violates Article 45 of the Constitución Política. Instead, the petitioner maintains that the provision must be interpreted to mean that private properties located within an indigenous reserve are legally incorporated into it upon completion of the expropriation proceeding (trámite expropiatorio) provided for in Article 5 thereof.
The petitioner contends that some persons, such as the party it represents, acquired properties in indigenous reserves after their establishment, relying, however, on the absence of any registry notation; yet, under the criterion now being challenged, those properties are not subject to expropriation because it is unjustly claimed that the real estate was not acquired in good faith. This situation entails an unlawful confiscation of property because real estate is transferred to the indigenous property regime without prior payment of the corresponding compensation. The petitioner argues that, until the Administration completes the expropriation, properties acquired in good faith, both before and after the creation of the respective indigenous reserve, must remain privately owned, because they have not been subjected to the special regime that renders them inalienable, not subject to acquisitive prescription, nontransferable, and exclusively for indigenous communities.
The petitioner emphasizes that the failure to respect rights acquired in reliance on the public registry (fe registral) amounts to a de facto expropriation (expropiación de hecho), contrary to section 45 of the Constitution, Article 21.2 of the CADH, and the principle of non-confiscation. It also violates the principles of good faith and legitimate expectations because numerous persons, unaware that the properties formed part of indigenous reserves, acquired properties that, according to the registry, were not subject to any type of undisclosed encumbrance, which justifies treating them as owners in good faith. The petitioner alleges that the Administration’s negligence in failing to record these properties in the Registro Público de la Propiedad constitutes an omission that violates the constitutional principles of good faith, legitimate expectations, legal certainty (seguridad jurídica), and the right to property (derecho a la propiedad), and that it cannot prejudice third-party purchasers in good faith, as is precisely the case of the party it represents.
Regarding the violation of sections 9 and 41 of the Constitución Política, the petitioner states that those provisions, together with section 11, establish the principle of the Administration’s financial liability (responsabilidad patrimonial de la Administración), under which the rights of private parties subject to the Administration (administrados) must be respected by all state authorities, including the courts of justice. However, the courts might potentially find that other principles of higher standing must be protected over the aforementioned constitutional principles of good faith and legitimate expectations and the right to property—for example, the protection of indigenous property. Nevertheless, the petitioner contends that when the courts protect indigenous property over the aforementioned constitutional principles of good faith and legitimate expectations and the right to property, they violate the constitutional principle of the State’s non-contractual financial liability for lawful acts and normal operations (responsabilidad patrimonial extracontractual del Estado por acto lícito y funcionamiento normal), specifically for judicial activity, because the State performs this function as one of its essential duties under sections 9, 11, 41, 152 et seq. of the Carta Magna, a form of liability developed in sections 190 and 194 of the LGAP.
(...)
IV.On the alleged unconstitutionality. In the case at bar (sub lite), the petitioner brings this action seeking a declaration that the case law of the First Chamber of Cassation (judgments nos. 000920-F-S1-2015 issued at 14:30 hours on 6 de agosto de 2015, 002848-A-S1-2020 issued at 10:10 hours on 3 de diciembre de 2020, 002878-F-S1-2020 issued at 10:35 hours on 10 de diciembre de 2020, and 000681-F-S1-2021 issued at 10:00 hours on 25 de marzo de 2021), concerning Article 3 of the Ley Indígena, is unconstitutional because it is contrary to sections 9, 11, 41, and 45 of the Constitución Política; the principles of good faith, legitimate expectations, and non-confiscation; and Article 21, subsection 2, of the CADH. In this regard, under that case law, persons who acquire land in indigenous reserves in reliance on the Registro Nacional (without any registry notation indicating that the acquired property is located within an indigenous reserve) are not purchasers in good faith and, for that reason, are denied the compensation provided for in section 5 of the Ley Indígena. On this matter, section 3 thereof provides:
“Article 3.- Indigenous reserves are inalienable, not subject to acquisitive prescription, nontransferable, and exclusively for the indigenous communities that inhabit them. Non-indigenous persons may not lease, rent, purchase, or otherwise acquire land or properties located within these reserves. Indigenous persons may only (sic) transact concerning their lands with other indigenous persons. Any transfer or transaction involving land or improvements thereon within indigenous reserves, between indigenous and non-indigenous persons, is absolutely null and void, with the corresponding legal consequences. The land, improvements thereon, and products of indigenous reserves shall be exempt from all present or future national or municipal taxes.”
Section 5 thereof, in turn, provides:
Article 5.- In the case of non-indigenous persons who are owners or good-faith possessors (poseedores de buena fe) within indigenous reserves, the ITCO shall relocate them to other similar lands if they so desire; if relocating them is impossible or they do not accept relocation, the ITCO shall expropriate their property and compensate them in accordance with the procedures established in the Ley de Expropiaciones (…)”.
Thus, the petitioner specifically challenges the determination in the disputed case law that the “good faith” required by the aforementioned provision does not exist when a person acquires property after the establishment of an indigenous reserve, regardless of whether the Registro Público displays any notation or restriction concerning the real estate. Accordingly, the petitioner considers the denial of compensation in such cases based on that interpretation to be contrary to Constitutional Law.
It is now pertinent to cite the ruling of the First Chamber of Cassation in judgment no. 920-F-S1-2015 issued at 14:30 hours on 6 de agosto de 2015, cited by the appellant:
“V.- The second paragraph of Article 1 of the Ley Indígena, no. 6172 of November 29, 1977, declared the areas defined in Executive Decrees 5904-G of April 10, 1976, 6036-G of June 12, 1976, 6037-G of June 15, 1976, 7267-G and 7268-G of August 20, 1977, as indigenous reserves (reservas indígenas), as well as the area it designated the “Reserva Indígena de Guaymí de Burica.” It should first be noted that the decrees listed therein were subsequently amended; and second—and of particular relevance to this matter—that the boundaries of the latter reserve (established directly and expressly by the legislature) were initially determined in Executive Decree 8514 of May 2, 1978, which also changed its name to “Guaymí de Conte-Burica,” a name that was later changed again to “Guaymí de Conteburica” by Decree 13545 of April 26, 1982. Those reserves are owned by the indigenous communities pursuant to Article 2 thereof.
Provision 3 of the same body of law further provides that they (sic) “are inalienable, not subject to acquisitive prescription (imprescriptibles), nontransferable, and exclusively for the indigenous communities that inhabit them. Non-indigenous persons may not rent, lease, purchase, or otherwise acquire land or properties located within these reserves. Indigenous persons may only transact with respect to their lands with other indigenous persons. Any transfer or transaction involving lands or improvements thereon (sic) in indigenous reserves between indigenous and non-indigenous persons is absolutely null and void, with the corresponding legal consequences. The lands and their improvements and the products of the indigenous reserves shall be exempt from all present or future national or municipal taxes” (bold added). Provision 5, in turn, establishes that “In the case of non-indigenous persons who are owners or good-faith possessors (poseedores de buena fe) within indigenous reserves, ITCO shall relocate them to other similar lands if they so wish; if it is not possible to relocate them or they do not accept relocation, ITCO shall expropriate and compensate them in accordance with the procedures established in the Ley de Expropiaciones. [.-] (…) If non-indigenous persons subsequently invade the reserves, the competent authorities shall immediately proceed to evict them, without payment of any compensation.
(…)”. It follows from the foregoing provisions that: A) lands located within indigenous reserves are inalienable and nontransferable; B) non-indigenous persons cannot acquire such lands or rights therein under any title; and C) non-indigenous persons who are owners or good-faith possessors are entitled to relocation or, failing that, expropriation, but only if their exercise of possession or acts as owners was in good faith, which necessarily requires that they have held that status before the Ley Indígena entered into force or before the various Executive Decrees which, in implementation of Article 1 thereof, define the physical boundaries of the reserves (and in compliance—of course—with the Convención Americana sobre los Derechos Humanos (Pacto de San José), Convenio 169 de la Organización Internacional de Trabajo, Declaración de las Naciones Unidas sobre los Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas, and the Brasilia Rules).
That temporal element—namely, prior possession or ownership before the reserve was established by the Ley Indígena or before the land was incorporated through the executive decrees implementing it—is inherent in the possession or title giving rise to the right to relocation or compensation. In other words, it forms part of the prerequisites for that right because it is a determining factor of good faith. Although not expressly contained in provision 5, it follows clearly from its relationship with Article 3. Note first that, in provision 5, the legislature assumed as a factual premise that, at that time (the enactment of the Law), non-indigenous persons were exercising possessory acts (actos posesorios) or acting as owners in good faith (irrespective of registration of their title), and it recognized their right to relocation or compensation in the first paragraph. Consequently, a non-indigenous person who began exercising acts of possession or ownership after the land was included in a reserve cannot be deemed to have acted in good faith.
Along those lines, Article 3 must be understood to mean that, after establishing that indigenous reserves are inalienable and nontransferable, it bars all non-indigenous persons (both those owners or possessors recognized in the first part of provision 5 and those who were not, since it makes no distinction) from participating in or benefiting from any act or transaction transferring ownership (negocio traslativo de dominio). Accordingly, if they violate that prohibition, they must be classified as invaders and evicted without any compensation, pursuant to the third paragraph of provision 5. In other words, from the moment the land is incorporated into an indigenous reserve by the respective Decree (whether one of those listed in the first provision of the Law or one of those subsequently implementing it), the non-indigenous person who until then had exercised possession or acts as an owner in good faith has the right to be relocated or, failing that, expropriated and compensated, precisely because that person’s right conflicts with the property right in rem (derecho real de propiedad) held by the indigenous community, as conferred upon it by the second paragraph of Article 2 of the Ley Indígena.
From that moment, moreover—as the Sala Constitucional stated in judgment 2097-2011 of February 23, 2011—the property is frozen; as a result, the individual who until then had exercised possession or ownership with all its attributes is absolutely restricted from disposing of their right to that land, as provided in provision 3 of that legislation. Consequently, the appellant in cassation (casacionista) is incorrect in alleging an erroneous interpretation of provisions 3 and 5 of the Ley Indígena. Nor is there any violation of provisions 45 of the Carta Magna and 286 of the Código Civil, because the appellant’s arguments concerning the latter two provisions depended on the interpretation of the former. In particular, it is precisely because of that conflict with the ownership right established in favor of the indigenous community, and because of that absolute restriction on the power of disposition (facultad de disposición), which alters the essential content of the person’s right, that the Law orders INDER to undertake relocation or expropriation, in observance of constitutional provision 45; this must also be implemented through the application of the aforementioned international rules and Ley de Expropiaciones, no 7495 (…)”. (Emphasis not in the original).
Likewise, in judgment n.° 2848-A-S1-2020 at 10:10 on December 3, 2020, also cited by the appellant, the court of cassation ruled:
“XVII. (…) On the other hand, regarding the arguments concerning provisions 5 and 8 of the Ley Indígena, the appellant did not challenge the facts established by the Tribunal in proven facts numbers 2 and 3 concerning the creation of the Reserva Indígena Matambú and the fact that it was duly demarcated in 1980 by Executive Decree no. 11564, with the property at issue, registration no. 28530-000, located within it. On the contrary, as already indicated, that factual situation is fully acknowledged by the plaintiff in facts 2 and 4 of the complaint. As explained when analyzing the preceding ground of appeal, the plaintiff had full knowledge of the Executive Decrees, not only the decree creating that Reserva Indígena but also the decree demarcating it, which encompassed the property at issue. Therefore, the Tribunal’s finding that, when the plaintiff acquired the disputed property, it already formed part of the Reserva Indígena and that he consequently should not be considered a good-faith purchaser (adquirente de buena fe) or possessor because he cannot claim ignorance of the legal rules then in force—and that the transaction and transfer of the property were absolutely null and void by operation of law (nulos de pleno derecho) pursuant to Article 3 of the Ley Indígena, which constitutes special legislation governing this subject—is confirmed rather than disproved.
Ergo, the complaint could not succeed. Moreover, the appellant in cassation did not challenge the Tribunal’s conclusion that the transaction and transfer were null and void by operation of law pursuant to provision 3 of the Ley Indígena, which alone renders the appellant’s arguments immaterial. On the other hand, regarding the appellant’s assertion that “With respect to this provision [referring to Article 5 of the Ley Indígena], the Tribunal improperly applies this provision because, although it establishes that my client does not satisfy the requirements of this article, it fails to consider that, had INDER expropriated the lawful owner, my client would not be in this situation.” That assertion is unavailing. As indicated, in light of the statements in fact 4 of the complaint and proven fact no. 3 of the challenged judgment, the plaintiff had full knowledge of Executive Decree no. 11564 of June 2, 1980, published in the official gazette La Gaceta no. 115 of June 18 of that year, by which the Reserva Indígena Matambú was duly demarcated, encompassing the property at issue.
Because of this situation, in addition to the fact that he cannot be considered a good-faith purchaser or possessor, pursuant to ordinal provision 3 of the Ley Indígena—which, it bears repeating, is the special rule governing Reservas Indígenas—the transaction and transfer of the property in his favor are absolutely null and void by operation of law; for those reasons, the complaint could not succeed.
XVIII.Regarding the statements under point 2), “Rules Concerning Title to Property and Reliance on the Property Registry (Fe Registral),” as indicated in the preceding section, provision 3 of the Ley Indígena, reproduced in recital VI (considerando VI) of this decision, which states that “Any transfer or transaction involving lands or improvements thereon (sic) in indigenous reserves between indigenous and non-indigenous persons is absolutely null and void, with the corresponding legal consequences,” constitutes a special rule applicable to properties located in Reservas Indígenas. Therefore, in disputes in which the transaction or transfer of lands or improvements in indigenous reserves between indigenous and non-indigenous persons is alleged, analyzed, or contested, as in this case, that is the applicable legislation, not the provisions contained in other bodies of law such as, for example, the Código Civil. Ergo, the appellant in cassation’s argument concerning the failure to apply civil-law rules is unavailing (…)”. (Emphasis not in the original).
Likewise, in judgment n.° 2848-A-S1-2020 at 10:10 on December 3, 2020, also cited by the claimant, it was determined:
“V. In the view of this Chamber—see judgment N° 920-F-S1-2015 of 14 hours 30 minutes on 6 de agosto de 2015—the following aspects may be drawn from the Ley Indígena: a) indigenous territories are inalienable and nontransferable; b) non-indigenous persons may not acquire, under any title, land located within the reserve; and c) non-indigenous owners or possessors in good faith are entitled to be relocated or, failing that, compensated and thereby expropriated; the latter always on the understanding that possession or ownership was exercised in good faith. The foregoing means that such status must have existed prior to the entry into force of the Ley Indígena or of the Executive Decrees that included a territory within a reserve. This temporal element—predating the establishment of the reserve by law or executive decree—is inherent in the possession or title that gives rise to the right to relocation or compensation.
In other words, this prerequisite is a determining factor of good faith. Consequently, a non-indigenous person who began exercising acts of possession or ownership after the land was included in a reserve cannot be deemed to have acted in good faith. It is for this reason that the law itself has declared these lands inalienable and nontransferable; accordingly, there is an express prohibition against non-indigenous persons participating in or benefiting from any act or transaction transferring title (negocio traslativo de dominio). If this prohibition is violated, such persons must be classified as trespassers, and their eviction without any compensation whatsoever is required. Stated differently, from the moment the land is incorporated by decree or law, the non-indigenous person who until then had exercised acts of possession or ownership in good faith is entitled to be relocated or, failing that, compensated and expropriated, because that person’s right conflicts with the property right in rem (derecho real de propiedad) held from that moment onward by the indigenous community, as attributed to it by Article 2 of the Ley Indígena.
It is from that instant that the property becomes frozen; the Sala Constitucional so held in judgment 2097-2011 of 23 de febrero de 2011. The individual who until then exercised that right with all its attributes is absolutely restricted from exercising the power to dispose of the right over the property. In addition to the foregoing, in that same judgment this Chamber determined that, when a person seeks compensation because the person’s land lies within an indigenous reserve, it is necessary that, in addition to being a non-indigenous person and a possessor or owner in good faith under the rules already established, and pursuant to Article 317 of the Código Procesal Civil ley 7130 (which applies supplementarily in this case, as permitted by section 220 of the Código Procesal Contencioso Administrativo), the claimant must demonstrate through compelling evidence—such as expert evidence (prueba pericial) based on an examination of the land surveys—that the land at issue is unquestionably located within an indigenous reserve.
VI. (…) Now then, irrespective of the verification that the properties in question form part of the Reserve, it is necessary to state in this judgment, because it is at issue in these proceedings, that, as indicated in previous recitals (considerandos), the evidence submitted by the claimant shows that he acquired the land on 17 de septiembre de 2013; that is, 37 years after the Reserve was established and 36 years after the enactment of the Ley Indígena. As explained in this judgment, Nombre82222 cannot be regarded as a purchaser in good faith because the Reserva Indígena de Quitirrisí had been established and protected for more than three decades. The complaint states that the claimant is a resident of Quitirrisí, that is, the very area where the Reserve is located; thus, this Chamber does not even find it credible that Mr. Nombre82223 did not know that he was acquiring land within a protected area under the collective ownership of the indigenous population and therefore property that could not be the subject of a legal transaction (negocio jurídico). Accordingly, the appellant’s arguments are unfounded, and his objections must be denied.”. (Emphasis not in the original).
Regarding these criteria, the Procuraduría General de la República contends that the Sala de Casación has done nothing more than correctly interpret the scope of the provisions cited above, in accordance with section 45 of the Constitución Política.
In this regard, it states that non-indigenous persons who are owners or possessors in good faith are indeed recognized as being entitled to compensation (expropriation), provided that their status as owner or possessor was acquired before the Ley Indígena or the executive decrees establishing the physical boundaries of the respective indigenous reserves entered into force. Conversely, a non-indigenous person who began exercising acts of possession or ownership over a property after that land was included within an indigenous reserve cannot be deemed to have acted in good faith, because the physical boundaries of that reserve had already been established and, consequently, such lands already had the status of being nontransferable and inalienable.
Based on the foregoing, the Procuraduría considers that, when land is incorporated into an indigenous reserve through the corresponding decree, the non-indigenous person who until that time had exercised acts of possession or ownership in good faith is entitled to the relocation or compensation prescribed by Article 5 eiusdem; however, the situation is different where a new registered owner may subsequently emerge after ownership of the property, already subject to the indigenous-reserve restriction, has been transferred to that person. In such a case, the challenged case law has held, on the one hand, that this constitutes an absolutely void transaction transferring title because it contravenes Article 3 of the Ley Indígena and, on the other hand, that good faith in the acquisition of the property is ruled out in such circumstances.
In this regard, this Chamber concludes that the challenged jurisprudential criteria do not contravene Constitutional Law (Derecho de la Constitución).
Specifically, section 5 of the Ley Indígena states that “good faith” must be established for the relocation or compensation of a non-indigenous person who possesses or owns property located within an indigenous reserve to be warranted; however, Article 3 eiusdem also provides that indigenous reserves are inalienable, not subject to acquisitive prescription (imprescriptibles), and nontransferable, while expressly providing: “Non-indigenous persons may not rent, lease, purchase, or otherwise acquire land or properties located within these reserves. (…)”.
Accordingly, it is apparent that, in the judgments cited by the petitioner, the Sala Primera de Casación has understood that the element of “good faith” cannot be established when, after the creation of an indigenous reserve (through the corresponding executive decree), a person acquires property within the boundaries of that restricted area, because, from the moment the area is legally established as an indigenous reserve, execution of such an act transferring title becomes legally impermissible, since the property in question is nontransferable by operation of law.
Thus, the Sala rejects the contention that this interpretation is contrary to section 45 of the Constitución Política because, precisely in accordance with this constitutional provision, persons who in good faith held title to property before it became part of the indigenous property regime must be compensated for the resulting impairment, since ownership of that property subsequently passed to an indigenous community. Logically, once an indigenous reserve has been created (by means of the executive decrees identified in Article 1 of the Ley Indígena itself), there is no legally plausible basis on which a non-indigenous person could validly acquire property within that restricted area, whose physical boundaries had already been duly established and published through the corresponding executive decrees. As stated in section 3 of the Ley Indígena itself, such an acquisition is absolutely void because the property was already nontransferable. It should be noted that the indigenous reserve and its proper spatial delimitation are established by the corresponding executive decree, not only when an eventual expropriation occurs under section 5 of the Ley Indígena, as the appellant suggests.
The petitioner further argues that, irrespective of whether the act transferring title was carried out after the indigenous reserve had been duly created, the purchaser acted in good faith, relying on the legal certainty afforded by the public notice provided through the land registry (publicidad registral), because no notation or restriction regarding that property had been entered in the Registro Público. The petitioner therefore argues that the denial of proper compensation violates the principles of good faith reliance on the land registry (buena fe registral) and legitimate expectations (confianza legítima).
Nevertheless, as stated ut supra, the legal transaction by which title to the property was transferred occurred contra legem, because the property was already subject to the indigenous property regime. Consequently, irrespective of what appeared in the Registro Público at the time of the transaction, the real property could not be placed in commerce or transferred to a person outside the indigenous community.
In connection with this position, and regarding the principle of legitimate expectations invoked by the appellant, it is useful to emphasize what this Sala has held:
“In summary, the principle of legitimate expectations rests on the premise that a citizen engages in conduct trusting that he or she is acting properly because the Administration’s consistent and stable conduct over time reasonably creates such an expectation; stated differently, the Administration has manifested external indications that have guided the citizen toward certain conduct and caused the citizen to trust in good faith that the situation will continue. As Meza Valencia (2013) explains, “a private party’s trust arises when the Administration’s word or promise enters the legal sphere, but it is strengthened and takes root through the chain of subsequent conduct undertaken by the Administration, insofar as such conduct is directed toward reinforcing and developing the word previously given. Without such subsequent harmonious and consistent acts, the promise previously given loses its capacity to consolidate legitimate expectations (…)
Costa Rican constitutional case law has already recognized this principle, as shown by the following precedents:
“(...) Regarding the development of this principle and its deep constitutional roots, national legal scholarship has stated as follows: “This principle arose in the Federal Republic of Germany and was subsequently adopted by the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Community to define a situation worthy of protection where the trust placed in the actions of the Public Administration had been breached. The Spanish Supreme Court, in its judgment of 1º de febrero de 1990, held that this principle must be applied not merely (sic) whenever any type of psychological conviction arises in the beneficiary, but rather where it is based on external indications produced by the Administration that are sufficiently conclusive to reasonably induce the beneficiary to trust in the lawfulness of the administrative action, coupled with the fact that, given the weighing of the interests at stake—the individual interest and the general interest—the revocation or nullification of the act causes the beneficiary who reasonably relied on that administrative situation to incur losses that the beneficiary should not have to bear, arising from expenses or investments that can be restored only at serious cost to the beneficiary’s assets. With regard to the requirements of the principle of legitimate expectations (principio de confianza legítima), Spanish legal scholarship, following the case law of the Spanish Supreme Court, has established the following: There must be an act 1) of the Administration that is sufficiently conclusive to give rise in the affected party to one of the following three types of trust: a) the affected party’s trust that the Public Administration is acting correctly; b) the affected party’s trust that the conduct maintained in dealings with the Public Administration is lawful, where there may be a mistake of law (error de prohibición); c) the affected party’s trust that his or her expectations as an interested party are reasonable. 2) The Public Administration must produce external indications (acts or facts) that, even without necessarily being legally binding, steer the administered party toward particular conduct that, but for the appearance of legality created, the party would not have undertaken. 3) An act of the Public Administration (e.g., a regulation that recognizes or creates an individualized legal situation whose stability the administered party trusts. 4) The appropriate cause giving rise to the affected party’s legitimate expectations cannot arise from mere negligence, tolerance, or ignorance on the part of the Public Administration, or from the irrational nature of what the administered party seeks. 5) The administered party must fulfill the applicable duties and obligations. Breach of the principle of legitimate expectations unquestionably produces several important legal effects, namely: 1) It acts as a limit on the exercise of discretionary powers (potestades discrecionales). 2) It operates as a safeguard of the principle of equality. 3) It gives rise to the Public Administration’s duty to compensate for the frustration of legitimate expectations and the impairment of individual rights (derechos subjetivos). The principle of legitimate expectations, together with the principle of good faith in legal-administrative relations, stems from the principle of legal equality, that is, certainty in relations with public authorities, so that the administered party knows where he or she stands with them (sic), and those authorities must avoid objectively confusing situations and preserve legal situations even when they are not entirely consistent with the legal system. This principle takes concrete form, among other circumstances, in the theory of the inviolability of an authority’s own acts declaring rights in favor of the administered party (intangibilidad de los actos propios declarativos de derechos), the limitation of burdensome acts (actos de gravamen), and non-retroactivity. It also applies when a public administration issues and carries out a series of acts and actions that, although legally incorrect, generate expectations in the administered party, who believes that he or she holds a legal status consistent with the legal system (...)” (see judgment N° 2010-010171 at 9:58 hours on 11 de junio de 2010).” (Judgment n.° 2016008000 at 11:52 hours on 10 de junio de 2016).
In the case at hand, this Court rejects the contention that the challenged case law disregards the aforementioned principle. Thus, it must be reiterated that, regardless of what appears in the land registry, property incorporated into an Indigenous reserve (reserva indígena) is non-transferable by express provision of law, such that neither land-registry good faith (buena fe registral) nor alleged legitimate expectations may be invoked to validate an absolutely void transaction, executed in contravention of the legal system. Once again, it should be noted that the physical boundaries of Indigenous reserves are established through various duly published executive decrees; moreover, there is an express statutory prohibition against non-Indigenous persons acquiring such properties, and therefore the conveyances are void. Accordingly, any failure by the Public Registry to record the designation of a property as part of an Indigenous reserve in no way validates any transfer of title carried out outside the law, nor does it constitute an appropriate basis for the purchaser under such void transaction to claim compensation under section 5 of the Ley Indígena, as the appellant seeks to do.
It is also worth clarifying that liability for the Public Registry’s failure to record, in a specific case, properties that form part of an Indigenous reserve, as well as any potential liability that, as the Office of the Attorney General indicates, might attach to the seller of property subject to the Indigenous-reserve regime, or that which the President of the First Chamber of Cassation asserts might attach to the notary public who executes a legal transaction on such terms, cannot properly be declared through the review proceedings conducted by this Chamber by means of an action of unconstitutionality (acción de inconstitucionalidad). Such a claim must therefore be adjudicated through the corresponding ordinary proceedings.
Lastly, the petitioner alleges that the standards set forth in the challenged case law violate the principle of the State’s non-contractual financial liability (responsabilidad patrimonial extracontractual) for judicial activity, enshrined in articles 9, 11 and 41 of the Constitución Política and developed in sections 190 and 194 of the Ley General de la Administración Pública. In this regard, this Chamber agrees with the Office of the Attorney General of the Republic that any potential State liability for judicial activity—which, far from merely reflecting disagreement with a judicial precedent, entails a finding of some serious irregularity in the performance of judicial responsibilities and powers—cannot be heard or determined through an action of unconstitutionality. Consequently, if the petitioner believes that the ordinary courts have incurred any such form of administrative liability, it may resort to the corresponding ordinary proceedings if it sees fit.
In view of the foregoing, the action of unconstitutionality is dismissed.” As a corollary, this Court, by majority vote, has already concluded that the aforementioned line of case law does not contravene the Law of the Constitution (Derecho de la Constitución) and, on the contrary, is consistent with the special Indigenous-property regime governed by articles 1, 2, 3 and 5 of the Ley Indígena. As established, that judicial standard neither disregards nor infringes the fundamental rights of non-Indigenous persons who, in good faith, held title to a property before it was incorporated into the Indigenous-property regime; such persons are recognized as having the right to relocation or to expropriation and compensation for the harm suffered. Reference must therefore again be made to the preceding recital (considerando) regarding the possibility that such persons may resort to the appropriate authorities if they have not yet been relocated or expropriated.
Substantially different, however, is the situation of non-Indigenous persons who seek to derive rights from legal transactions entered into after the Indigenous reserve was established because—as the partially quoted decision already stated—“(l)ogically, once an Indigenous reserve has been established (through the executive decrees specified in article 1 of the Ley Indígena itself), there is no legally plausible basis upon which a non-Indigenous person could validly acquire property within such a restricted area, whose physical boundaries have already been duly established and published through the corresponding executive decrees. Such an acquisition, as provided in section 3 of the Ley Indígena itself, is absolutely void because the property was already non-transferable. It should be noted that the Indigenous reserve and its proper spatial boundaries are established upon issuance of the corresponding executive decree, not only when an eventual expropriation occurs under section 5 of the Ley Indígena, as the appellant suggests....” In such circumstances, there is no reason whatsoever to depart from the standard previously stated on that occasion.
As a corollary to the foregoing, the action filed must be dismissed on the merits, as hereby ordered. Justice Garro Vargas dissents and would partially grant the action of unconstitutionality; consequently, she declares the challenged line of case law unconstitutional insofar as it generically assumes the existence of bad faith in the basis for acquiring title under the transaction conveying ownership, based exclusively on the entry into force of article 5 of the Ley Indígena and, therefore, on the original nullity of the conveyance transaction arising from the provisions of that article. Justice Garro Vargas files a separate note.
VI.DISSENTING OPINION OF JUSTICE GARRO VARGAS REGARDING THE LINE OF CASE LAW OF THE FIRST CHAMBER OF THE SUPREME COURT OF JUSTICE.
The undersigned Justice notes that, in the precedent cited as grounds for dismissing the action with respect to the aforementioned line of case law of the First Chamber of the Supreme Court of Justice, I dissented together with Justice Garita. The dissenting opinion included the following considerations:
“DISSENTING OPINION OF JUSTICE GARRO VARGAS AND JUSTICE GARITA NAVARRO, AUTHORED BY THE LATTER.
With due respect, we dissent from the majority’s position for the reasons set forth below. Ley Indígena No. 6172 dates from 1977, whereas the Guatuso Indigenous Reserve was created by Decreto Ejecutivo No. 5904-G, published in Alcance No. 60 to La Gaceta No. 70 of 10 de abril de 1976, and its boundaries were established by sections 1 and 2 of Decreto Ejecutivo No. 7962 of 15 de diciembre de 1977. Section 5 of the Ley Indígena provides:
Article 5.- In the case of non-Indigenous persons who are owners or good-faith possessors within Indigenous reserves, ITCO shall relocate them to other similar lands if they so desire; if relocation is not possible or they do not accept it, ITCO shall expropriate their property and compensate them in accordance with the procedures established in the Ley de Expropiaciones. (As amended by article 65, subsection d), of Ley Nº 7495 of 3 de mayo de 1995).
The studies and procedures for expropriation and compensation shall be carried out by ITCO in coordination with CONAI.
If non-Indigenous persons subsequently invade the reserves, the competent authorities shall immediately proceed with their eviction, without payment of any compensation.
In other words, this provision establishes mandatory subjective requirements that determine whether the compensation procedure established therein is applicable, namely:
Section 3 ejusdem provides that non-Indigenous persons may not rent, lease, purchase, or otherwise acquire land or properties located within these reserves. It is therefore necessary in each case to analyze and weigh whether the acquisition of real property under those circumstances was made in good or bad faith. This would require considering, among other matters, whether the property was acquired from an Indigenous person, in which case it would be absolutely null and void (nulidad de pleno derecho) because it was objectively possible to know that the property was Indigenous; or whether the property bore signs or physical, visual elements identifying it as part of a reserve, had entries in the Property Registry (anotaciones registrales), was occupied by Indigenous persons, or was used by those communities for activities. However, when property is acquired from a non-Indigenous person, it is necessary to consider whether the purchaser was objectively capable of knowing that the property was subject to this special form of ownership, in which case the land boundaries and Property Registry entries would be decisive indicators.
In this regard, merely establishing the boundaries of a reserve of this kind by executive decree in no way imposes upon third parties a duty to know of those circumstances. Such third parties, relying on the public notice afforded by the Property Registry (publicidad registral inmobiliaria) and pursuant to section 455 of the Civil Code, acquire property that, according to the Registry, is not encumbered by or subject to any marginal notation, whether direct or indirect, warning them of the nature of the land. Specifically, within the rationale of Ley No. 6172, the duty imposed by section 5—concerning the expropriation of land belonging to non-Indigenous persons located within those reserves—seeks not only to protect the right of Indigenous communities to the restitution of the lands that constituted the geographic setting of their existence, activities, and customs, but also to regulate and define the scope of the State’s obligation to return traditionally occupied lands to those communities.
That commitment was recognized even before the enactment of Ley Indígena (1977), specifically in Ley de Terrenos Baldíos of 1939 and ILO Convention 107 of 1959, a provision that required the State to recognize the lands traditionally occupied by Indigenous peoples; these rules were subsequently reinforced by the aforementioned Ley No. 6172 and ILO Convention 169. Thus, Ley Indígena required the State, together with ITCO (now INDER and CONAI), to initiate population studies and expropriation proceedings (trámites de expropiación) to remove such ownership from non-Indigenous persons and return it to Indigenous peoples. The mandatory requirement to institute expropriation proceedings demonstrates that this framework seeks dual protection: on the one hand, safeguarding Indigenous communal property from which Indigenous peoples were displaced for numerous historical reasons and, on the other, based on the good faith of the current non-Indigenous owners, protecting ownership rights acquired in good faith, since it was the State’s own inaction that led to those transfers of ownership and, in many cases, to the failure to register title in the Property Registry.
The restriction imposed by section 3 of Ley Indígena arises once it is certain that the reserve has been geographically delimited and that non-Indigenous third parties have been clearly informed that their lands form part of the reserve and will therefore be expropriated. That section provides that non-Indigenous persons may not lease, acquire, or otherwise obtain rights of disposition or use over Indigenous reserve areas. This is because, once those lands have been placed at the disposal of Indigenous persons, non-Indigenous persons may not acquire them by any means; otherwise, the very purpose of the Law and the duty to return the land to Indigenous peoples would be undermined. For that same reason, the provision (Article 3) recognizes that transfers from Indigenous to non-Indigenous persons are absolutely null and void, since its rationale is to prevent those communities from once again losing their property rights.
Therefore, in cases such as this one, where the reserve has been delimited since 1977 but the declaration was not followed by conduct resulting in the physical restoration of the land to Indigenous persons in a manner capable of notifying third-party purchasers acting in good faith, it is improper to disregard the effects of acts transferring ownership. This may result from the failure to initiate studies or expropriation proceedings, make Property Registry entries, delimit areas, physically demarcate the land, post signs, provide notices, and so forth. Thus, so long as there was no objective possibility of knowing that the area was within an Indigenous reserve, bad faith cannot be presumed; otherwise, the State, understood in the comprehensive sense of Article 9 of the Constitution, would evade the obligation imposed upon it by section 5 of Ley No. 6172.
In the opinion of those signing this dissenting opinion (voto de minoría), the original-nullity sanction (nulidad originaria) established by the provision at issue does not permit the general and automatic exclusion of situations in which, given the circumstances surrounding the creation and disposition of those lands, third-party occupants or purchasers may be able to establish that they exercised their rights in good faith. In other words, the legally prescribed nullity of transfers of ownership of lands forming part of the aforementioned Indigenous reserves, according to the geographic boundaries in force at that time, undoubtedly operates automatically by law; consequently, it is undeniable that those properties must pass into Indigenous ownership and may not remain under private ownership. Nevertheless, that legal consequence does not prevent persons who, under certain circumstances, acquired legal rights in reliance on the paramount principle of legitimate expectations (confianza legítima), and who duly and fully establish objective grounds from which possession or acquisition in good faith may be inferred, from bringing compensation claims against the Public Administration for its failure to fulfill the obligations imposed upon it by Ley Indígena since 1977, under the terms stated supra.
Thus, in cases of acquisition in good faith under the circumstances described, notwithstanding that the lands must be placed at the disposal of the respective Indigenous community, it would be appropriate to ask whether the obligated administrative authorities would entertain a compensation claim by the original owner or whether, instead, they would deny such compensation on the ground that ownership had been transferred. The issue, therefore, is not to deny that these lands are part of an Indigenous reserve, but to achieve a balance in protecting the legal interests involved. This requires not only protecting Indigenous property, but also protecting the rights of persons who acquired in good faith because the Administration merely declared the boundaries of a reserve by executive decree, without taking the necessary physical measures to ensure the effective return of the land to Indigenous persons and without taking concrete steps to provide third parties with legal certainty that those properties were unavailable for transactions in the real estate market.
Otherwise, those lands would not be compensated for in favor of the former owners, who, by virtue of the declaration establishing a special regime of jointly held Indigenous property (propiedad mancomunada indígena), must submit to the extinguishment of their ownership rights, but without receiving the corresponding civil compensation required by law. From that perspective, although the contention that the requested relief is inadmissible solely because the property was acquired through the Property Registry after the reserve was created is a respected position, it is ultimately deemed to violate the rights governed by sections 9 and 45 of the Political Constitution, insofar as it generically and abstractly presumes bad faith in the basis for acquisition, thereby denying potential compensation. It should be noted that the compensation provided for in section 5 of Ley No. 6172 is barred only in cases involving holders or occupants acting in bad faith.
Accordingly, with all due respect, it is considered untenable to proceed from a general premise, applicable to every case regardless of its particular facts and circumstances, that the properties were acquired with clear knowledge that they formed part of Indigenous patrimony. There may well be cases in which those properties were acquired without any Property Registry entry warning that they were legally incapable of registration through acquisition by purchase or through possessory-information proceedings (trámites de información posesoria). On the contrary, acquisition through judicial possessory-information proceedings presupposes that those proceedings included an analysis of whether the various requirements for obtaining title by such means had been met, including public, peaceful, and good-faith possession. Consequently, it would not initially be legitimate simply to disregard the content and effect of those judicial decisions and presume bad faith in the basis for acquisition. Although legal avenues exist for obtaining their annulment, that possibility would not necessarily entail presuming bad faith on the part of the occupant or titleholder.
To date, although the Ley Indígena imposes a duty on INDER and CONAI to delimit and demarcate the areas comprising the various Indigenous Reserves (Reservas Indígenas) in Costa Rica and to conduct the population censuses needed to determine and distinguish which titleholders or occupants of land within those areas are Indigenous or non-Indigenous, with a view to carrying out the relevant expropriations or relocations, those actions have not been completed. From that standpoint, and with our customary respect, we disagree with the denial of a duty to expropriate or, in certain circumstances, of the Administration’s financial liability (responsabilidad patrimonial), arising from its inaction in undertaking the formal and material measures necessary to guarantee the acquisition, recovery, protection, and due public notice of those lands. This is because such a denial would entail rejecting the civil liability established by provision 9 of the Political Constitution, despite proof of indolence—that is, an abnormal failure to act (malfunction)—which, with a high degree of probability, may have constituted an adequate cause whereby third parties were placed in a position to acquire property in legitimate reliance (confianza legítima) on the public registry records, thereby sustaining compensable financial harm.
The contrary would effectively condone the de facto and unlawful compulsory acquisition of those lands without the compensation that, for purposes of expropriation, is established not only by article 5 of the Ley Indígena but also by provision 45, opening paragraph, of the Constitution, which safeguards the right to property and permits its extinguishment only through expropriation proceedings and upon prior payment of the corresponding compensation. Thus, if INDER’s legal—and constitutional—duty is to expropriate land that became part of a particular Indigenous reserve and that is owned or possessed in good faith by non-Indigenous persons, the absence of a demand that the expropriation be carried out does not preclude enforcement of the obligations incumbent upon those public entities as a guarantee of protection for the legal position of those non-Indigenous good-faith titleholders. Accordingly, each specific case must be examined individually to determine whether the acquisition was made in bad faith. That condition does not arise automatically from the transaction transferring title being legally void.
Finally, we wish to emphasize that it is clear that land-transfer transactions executed after the Ley Indígena entered into force or after the creation and delimitation of each Indigenous reserve are void by operation of law. Likewise, no right to claim financial compensation would exist where non-Indigenous third parties could not establish that they acted in good faith in occupying or acquiring the property. For this purpose, it is evident that the mere absence of registry annotations does not determine either the validity of the legal transaction or good faith in the occupation, because if, in each case, notwithstanding the public registry records, objective parameters exist from which the legal nature of such property may be inferred, the condition necessary for compensation would not be met. This is equally applicable to the other acts comprising the respective chain of title (tracto sucesivo).
Therefore, we consider the challenged line of case law consistent with Constitutional Law (Derecho de la Constitución), insofar as it is understood to apply to cases in which the respective judicial proceeding has not established the existence of good faith in the transaction through which the property was acquired, an issue that is not strictly contingent upon the legal classification of the transfer transaction as void ab initio, as established by the aforementioned article 5 of the Ley Indígena. Thus, it is within the particular circumstances of each ordinary proceeding that this condition must be determined and whether any civil compensation may be warranted must be assessed, an issue that, of course, lies beyond the scope of review proper to this jurisdiction. However, the contested blanket application prevents consideration of whether the Administration’s liability regime for damages may potentially apply, grounded, it bears repeating, in provision 9 of the Constitution.
Por tanto, Justice Garro Vargas and Justice Garita Navarro dissent and declare the challenged line of case law unconstitutional insofar as it generally presumes the existence of bad faith in the underlying basis for acquiring title through a title-transfer transaction, based exclusively on the entry into force of article 5 of the Ley Indígena and, consequently, on the transfer transaction being void ab initio pursuant to that article.”
I set forth this note to underscore that those of us who join the aforementioned dissenting opinion have no doubt that transactions transferring title to non-Indigenous persons are void after the aforementioned law; however, we do not infer from this that the acquirer has unconditionally acted in bad faith. Rather, we consider that other factors must be examined. Certainly, many such factors were assessed in the judgments submitted. Nevertheless, it must be borne in mind that the act is void not because it was carried out in bad faith, but because it was performed after that law entered into force.
The parties are hereby advised that, if they submitted any paper document, as well as any objects or evidence contained on any additional electronic, computing, magnetic, optical, telematic, or new-technology device, they must retrieve them from the court within a maximum period of 30 business days from notification of this judgment. Otherwise, all materials not retrieved within that period shall be destroyed, pursuant to the “Reglamento sobre Expediente Electrónico ante el Poder Judicial,” approved by the Full Court at session N° 27-11 of August 22, 2011, article XXVI, and published in Judicial Bulletin number 19 of January 26, 2012, as well as pursuant to the resolution approved by the Superior Council of the Judiciary at session N° 43-12 held on May 3, 2012, article LXXXI.
Por tanto:
The action is dismissed on the merits. Justice Garro Vargas partially dissents and declares the challenged line of case law unconstitutional insofar as it generally presumes the existence of bad faith in the underlying basis for acquiring title through a title-transfer transaction, based exclusively on the entry into force of article 5 of the Ley Indígena and, consequently, on the transfer transaction being void ab initio pursuant to that article. Justice Garro Vargas sets forth a note.
Fernando Castillo V.
Chief Justice Fernando Cruz C.
Paul Rueda L.
Luis Fdo. Salazar A.
Jorge Araya G.
Anamari Garro V.
Aracelly Pacheco S.
Telephone numbers: Telf7268/ (Telf10). Fax: Telf1209 / Telf7229. Website: www.poder-judicial.go.cr/salaconstitucional. Address: (Dirección09, Dirección05, 100 mts.South of the Perpetuo Socorro church). Filing office for matters involving vulnerable groups: Dirección6012, San José, Dirección2662, Dirección495, streets 19 and 21, Dirección1786
Revisión del Documento SALA CONSTITUCIONAL DE LA CORTE SUPREMA DE JUSTICIA. San José, a las nueve horas treinta minutos del veinticinco de enero de dos mil veintitres .
Acción de inconstitucionalidad promovida por Nombre189, cédula de identidad CED44800, mayor, casado, abogado, vecino de Heredia, carné profesional 3191, como apoderado especial judicial de Nombre114942, cédula de identidad CED44801, en contra de la jurisprudencia de la Sala Primera de la Corte Suprema de Justicia relacionada con los numerales 2, 3 y 5 de la Ley Indígena y del artículo 2 de ese mismo cuerpo legal.
Resultando:
Redacta el Magistrado Castillo Víquez; y,
Considerando:
Estima esta Sala que la parte accionante goza de legitimación para promover esta acción de inconstitucionalidad, según el numeral 75, párrafo primero, de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional, al constatarse que la norma y la jurisprudencia impugnada resultan de aplicación en el proceso que se tramita en expediente nro. 17-000087-1028-CA. Incluso, una vez revisado dicho expediente, se puede verificar que la Procuraduría General de la República, al momento de contestar la demanda, hace expresa referencia a la jurisprudencia impugnada. Se acredita, asimismo, que en este proceso se realizó la respectiva invocación de inconstitucionalidad.
Ahora bien, a tenor del artículo 9 de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional, este Tribunal puede rechazar por el fondo cualquier gestión, incluso, desde su presentación o in limine litis, cuando considere que existen suficientes elementos de juicio. Lo que así ocurre en el sub lite, como se analizará en los siguientes considerandos.
La parte accionante impugna el artículo 2 de la Ley Indígena, que establece:
“Artículo 2º.- Las comunidades indígenas tienen plena capacidad jurídica para adquirir derechos y contraer obligaciones de toda clase. No son entidades estatales. Declárase propiedad de las comunidades indígenas las reservas mencionadas en el artículo primero de esta ley. La Procuraduría General de la República inscribirá en el Registro Público esas reservas a nombre de las respectivas comunidades indígenas. Las reservas serán inscritas libres de todo gravamen. Los traspasos del Estado a las comunidades indígenas serán gratuitos, no pagarán derechos de Registro y estarán exentos de todo otro tipo de carga impositiva conforme a los términos establecidos en la Ley de CONAI.” Asimismo, impugna la jurisprudencia de la Sala Primera de la Corte Suprema de Justicia, relacionada con los numerales 2, 3 y 5 de la Ley Indígena, contenida en sentencias 920-FS1-2015, 2046-F-S1-2020 y 2878-F-S1-2020.
La parte accionante acusa una infracción a los artículos 18, 33, 34, 41, 45 y 46 de la Constitución Política. Se alega, en concreto, una indebida interpretación de los artículos 2, 3 y 5 de la Ley Indígena, de parte de la Sala Primera de la Corte Suprema de Justicia, respecto de los requisitos que deben concurrir para que procede la reubicación o la expropiación prevista por el artículo 5 de ese mismo cuerpo legal, respecto de las personas no indígenas propietarias o poseedoras de buena fe. Se cuestiona, en específico, el que se exija -para calificar la propiedad o la posesión como de buena fe- que la persona haya ejercido los actos posesorios o como propietario de previo a la Ley Indígena o de los decretos que han delimitados las reservas indígenas. Se acusa que lo anterior obedece a una interpretación extensiva y errónea de la citada normativa legal que no contempla tal criterio temporal e implica reconocer un congelamiento de hecho o de facto del derecho real que ostenta la persona sobre el inmueble en cuestión, sin que se haya procedido con la previa y necesaria indemnización.
Con el agravante que han pasado más de cuatro décadas desde que se emitió la Ley Indígena y a la fecha se encuentran numerosos terrenos pendientes de indemnización. Argumenta que, conforme a una adecuada interpretación de la referida normativa, los propietarios y poseedores de buena fe no tenían impedimento alguno para vender, arrendar, alquilar o enajenar por cualquier forma los inmuebles de su pertenencia, si no habían sido indemnizados, por lo que quienes ejercieron como contraparte en tales negocios, conservarían la etiqueta de buena fe si así adquirieron. Asevera que esto resulta plenamente congruente con la subrogación de derechos y obligaciones prevista en el numeral 8 de la Ley de Expropiaciones, que debe ser de aplicación en estos casos. Reclama un vaciamiento del derecho de los propietarios y poseedores de buena fe que ostentan fincas dentro del territorio indígena delimitado, quienes tienen el derecho de ejercer los atributos de la propiedad o posesión hasta no ser indemnizados o reubicados.
Señala que la buena fe debe determinarse de forma casuística, según el acervo probatorio de cada caso concreto, pues establecer un parámetro general aplicable a la universalidad de propietarios o poseedores, reducido a la fecha de adquisición de un inmueble respecto del que no se ha otorgado indemnización alguna, nada dice sobre la buena fe. En lo referente específicamente al artículo 2 de la Ley Indígena, se alega que tal norma también ha sido indebidamente interpretada, pues -según argumenta el accionante- si bien es cierto tal numeral establece que las reservas indígenas son propiedad de las poblaciones indígenas que las habitan, esto no puede entenderse como una expropiación de facto de las personas que de buena fe habitan en los terrenos delimitados para tales efectos, ni puede entenderse como una constitución de carácter ipso facto del derecho real de propiedad a favor de las comunidades indígenas.
Acusa, en definitiva, que la forma en que se ha interpretado la citada normativa supone que los propietarios o poseedores se encuentran impedidos para disponer de cualquier forma de los atributos del dominio sin haber obtenido un previo resarcimiento por ello.
DEL ARTÍCULO 2 DE LA LEY INDÍGENA. En lo referente, específicamente, al artículo 2 de la Ley Indígena, se puede derivar -de una lectura integral del escrito de interposición- que los reproches del accionante se refieren a una presunta interpretación y aplicación indebida de tal numeral, más que respecto al contenido efectivo de tal disposición normativa. En todo caso, cabe señalar que esta Sala se ha pronunciado -de manera reiterada- que tal numeral resulta compatible con el Derecho de la Constitución. De forma reciente, en el voto nro. 2022005033 de las 9:20 horas del 2 de marzo de 2022, esta Sala resolvió -en lo que interesa- que:
“II.- OBJETO DE LA ACCIÓN. La parte accionante impugna el Decreto Ejecutivo nro. 7267-G del 9 de agosto de 1977, en que se establece la Reserva Indígena de Cocles, actualmente, Reserva Indígena Bribrí de Këköldi. Impugna, además, los artículos 1 y 2 de la Ley nro. 6172, Ley Indígena, en que se establece -respectivamente- que:
“Artículo 1º.- Son indígenas las personas que constituyen grupos étnicos descendientes directos de las civilizaciones precolombinas y que conservan su propia identidad.
Se declaran reservas indígenas las establecidas en los decretos ejecutivos números 5904-G del 10 de abril de 1976, 6036-G del 12 de junio de 1976, 6037-G del 15 de junio de 1976, 7267-G y 7268-G del 20 de agosto de 1977, así como la Reserva Indígena Guaymi de Conteburica.
Los límites fijados a las reservas, en los citados decretos, no podrán ser variados disminuyendo la cabida de aquéllas, sino mediante ley expresa.” “Artículo 2º.- Las comunidades indígenas tienen plena capacidad jurídica para adquirir derechos y contraer obligaciones de toda clase. No son entidades estatales. Declárase propiedad de las comunidades indígenas las reservas mencionadas en el artículo primero de esta ley. La Procuraduría General de la República inscribirá en el Registro Público esas reservas a nombre de las respectivas comunidades indígenas. Las reservas serán inscritas libres de todo gravamen. Los traspasos del Estado a las comunidades indígenas serán gratuitos, no pagarán derechos de Registro y estarán exentos de todo otro tipo de carga impositiva conforme a los términos establecidos en la Ley de CONAI.”
Esta Sala ya se ha pronunciado sobre la constitucionalidad de los citados artículos 1 y 2 de la Ley Indígena. Así, en sentencia nro. 0836 de las 17:36 horas del 10 de febrero de 1998, se resolvió:
“II.- LEY INDIGENA: Impugna también el párrafo 1) del artículo 1 y el párrafo 2) del artículo 2, de la Ley Indígena número 6172 del dieciséis de noviembre de mil novecientos setenta y siete, que señalan en su orden lo siguiente:
“Se declaran reservas indígenas las establecidas en los decretos ejecutivos números 5904-G del 10 de abril de mil novecientos setenta y seis, 6036-G del doce de junio de mil novecientos setenta y seis, 6037-G del quince de junio de mil novecientos setenta y seis, 7267-G y 7268-G del veinte de agosto de mil novecientos setenta y siete, así como la Reserva Indígena Guaymí de Burica” “Declárese propiedad de las comunidades indígenas las reservas mencionadas en el artículo primero de esta Ley” Señala el accionante que mediante esa legislación se crea un modelo de propiedad no conocido por la doctrina del derecho, cual es, propiedad de una colectividad, en donde la titularidad corresponde a una persona jurídica comunal que la misma Ley crea, pero a su vez, el título se concede a personas físicas individuales.- Con relación a ello debe decirse que ya en la Ley de Terrenos Baldíos número 13 de diez de enero de mil novecientos treinta y nueve al establecer en su artículo 8 que “…se declara inalienable y de propiedad exclusiva de los indígenas, una zona prudencial a juicio del Poder Ejecutivo en los lugares en donde exista tribus de éstos, a fin de que conserven nuestra raza autóctona y de liberarlos de futuras injusticias”, se habían creado las reservas indígenas.
Esta norma, que pudiera entenderse como programática, fue ampliada por el Decreto número 45 de tres de diciembre de mil novecientas cuarenta y cinco, al crear la Junta de Protección de las Razas Aborígenes de la Nación, cuya función básica era la protección de las tierras de los aborígenes. Posteriormente, por Decreto Ejecutivo número 34 de quince de noviembre de mil novecientos cincuenta y seis se declararon las Reservas Indígenas Boruca, Térraba, Salitre Cabagra y China Kichá. Estas disposiciones adquirieron rango superior incluso a la Ley, al tenor del artículo 7° de la Constitución Política, en cuanto la Asamblea Legislativa por Ley número 2330 de nueve de abril de mil novecientos cincuenta y nueve (La Gaceta número 84 de 17 de abril de 1959) aprobó el convenio número 107 de la Organización Internacional del Trabajo relativo a la “Protección e integración de las poblaciones indígenas y de otras poblaciones tribales y semitribales”, el cual, entre otras cosas, les reconoce su legítimo derecho a tener bajo su dominio las tierras de su propiedad, sea ello en forma individual o colectiva, y que la sucesión se regirán por los principios de las costumbres de sus pueblos.
La Ley de Tierras y Colonización número 2825 de catorce de octubre de mil novecientos sesenta y uno también incorporó todo un capítulo referido al tema, con el objeto de proteger esas tierras y a las razas autóctonas. Fue a partir de esta normativa que por decretos ejecutivos de mil novecientos sesenta y seis, número 11 del dos de abril y número 26 de doce de noviembre, se ordenó inscribir a nombre del Instituto de Tierras y Colonización, hoy Instituto de Desarrollo Agrario, las tres reservas indígenas creadas en mil novecientos sesenta y seis, esto es, desde antes que se promulgara la Ley creadora de la Comisión Nacional de Asuntos Indígenas número 5251 de once de julio de mil novecientos setenta y tres. En esta última, se establece en su transitorio que el Instituto de Tierras y Colonización entregaría las tierras por medio del trámite de información posesoria a los indígenas. Ese transitorio fue el que se reformó por la Ley número 5651 de trece de diciembre de mil novecientos setenta y cuatro, en donde se retoman los conceptos de la inalienabilidad, según se indicó en el considerando anterior.
Esto quiere decir también, que la Reserva Indígena Nombre82221 tuvo un régimen especial mucho antes de la acción del Estado por legalizar la situación de las reservas indígenas a través del Decreto ejecutivo número 5904-G del once de marzo de mil novecientos setenta y seis (para las del Chirripó, Guaymí de Coto Brus, Estrella, Guatuso y Talamanca), o el mismo Decreto ejecutivo número 6037-G del veintiséis de marzo de ese año. Lo que se hace por medio de las normas que el accionante impugna es otorgar rango legal a esas Reservas al citarse expresamente en el artículo
“Costa Rica ha suscrito gran número de instrumentos internacionales que directa o indirectamente protegen los derechos de las minorías en general y en especial los de los pueblos indígenas. En cuanto a esto último, nuestro país suscribió el Convenio 107 de la O.I.T. denominado “Convenio Relativo a los Pueblos Indígenas y Tribales en Países Independientes”, adoptado en 1957 y aprobado en 1959 por la Asamblea Legislativa de nuestro país, por Ley N°2330, primer paso hacia la protección de las poblaciones indígenas, colocando al Gobierno como principal responsable del proceso. Ese Convenio, modificado ahora por el 169 que se ha enviado, en consulta por la Asamblea Legislativa, fortalece aquella protección y respeto, con una concepción más universal de igualdad material y jurídica.- De la misma forma, la Ley Indígena, 6172 de 29 de noviembre de 1977, desarrolló, y en algunos aspectos superó las obligaciones internacionales contraídas por Costa Rica; pues reservó importantes porciones de su territorio para los indígenas, tratando de evitar que se inscribieran como propiedad privada de otros.
Otorgó plena personería y capacidad jurídica a sus comunidades para dirigir sus actividades y decidir sobre sus bienes; les permitió explotar las reservas naturales dentro de sus territorios y prohibió la extracción de objetos arqueológicos de sus cementerios.” En definitiva, el artículo 1 párrafo 1) y el artículo 2 párrafo 2) de la Ley Indígena que se cuestionan, no son inconstitucionales.
El accionante impugna también el artículo 3 de la Ley Indígena que señala:
“Las reservas indígenas son inalienables e imprescriptibles, no transferibles y exclusivas para las comunidades indígenas que las habitan. Los no indígenas no podrán alquilar, arrendar, comprar o de cualquier otra manera adquirir terrenos o fincas comprendidas dentro de estas reservas. Los indígenas sólo podrán negociar sus tierras con otros indígenas. Todo traspaso o negociación de tierras o mejoras de éstas en las reservas indígenas, entre indígenas y no indígenas, es absolutamente nulo con las consecuencias legales del caso.” Señala que esa norma establece restricciones a la propiedad porque contiene una prohibición absoluta de enajenar la propiedad ubicada dentro de las reservas Indígenas entre indígenas y no indígenas, prohibición del uso del instituto de la usucapión por parte de los indígenas, prohibición al costarricense no indígena de la posibilidad de adquirir un inmueble dentro de una reserva indígena, se niega el derecho de disposición del inmueble al indígena, pese a que se le reconoce la posesión.
Indica que tales limitaciones a la propiedad debieron aprobarse con mayoría calificada que debe constar expresamente. No es adecuado el planteamiento que hace el accionante. Por medio de la Ley Indígena, según se dijo, lño que se hace es traspasar las reservas indígenas que se encontraban inscritas a nombre del Instituto de Tierras y Colonización a las comunidades indígenas. De manera que no se está hablando de imponer limitaciones de interés social a la propiedad privada, sino de terrenos estatales que se adjudican a nombre de los indígenas, por lo que el análisis respecto de la mayoría calificada es innecesario. La Sala estima -conforme se señaló- que esa norma lo que hace es desarrollar conceptos contenidos en el Convenio 107 de la O.I.T. en donde surge toda una preocupación porque los pueblos indígenas considerados como una colectividad puedan efectivamente conservar sus derechos sobre los territorios ancestrales, comprendiendo no sólo la tierra en sí misma, sino también las aguas, zonas marinas, plantas, animales y otros recursos naturales que en total forman los nexos sociales, culturales, materiales y espirituales de la vida del indígena.
Lo que se pretende a través de esas normas es evitar el despojo, ya por remoción física o degradación ambiental que ha causado efectos catastróficos a los pueblos indígenas y defender así el derecho de los pueblos a conservar sus territorios para las generaciones siguientes.” (el destacado no corresponde al original) Luego, en el voto nro. 2011-000281 de las 9:36 horas del 14 de enero de 2011, esta Sala se pronunció nuevamente sobre el tema de la propiedad indígena y su protección por el Derecho de la Constitución. Se señaló, en concreto, que:
“III.- Sobre la protección jurídica constitucional en materia indígena. Se infiere de la propia Constitución Política un principio de reconocimiento de los pueblos indígenas, sustentado en la idea de protección estatal para lograr preservar su cultura, el cual es reafirmado en Tratados Internacionales debidamente ratificados por Costa Rica. En referencia a la legislación interna, la primera normativa que hace referencia a esta situación se encuentra la Ley de Terrenos Baldíos número 13 del 10 de enero de 1939, la cual establece en su artículo 8: "[...] se declara inalienable y de propiedad exclusiva de los indígenas, una zona prudencial a juicio del Poder Ejecutivo en los lugares en donde exista Tribus de éstos, a fin de que conserven nuestra raza autóctona y de liberarlos de futuras injusticias". Norma que fue ampliada por Decreto número 45 de 3 de diciembre de 1945, al crear la Junta de Protección de las Razas Aborígenes de la Nación, cuya función básica tendía a la protección de las tierras de los aborígenes, con el fin de no desampararles y mantener su étnia.
Posteriormente, por Decreto Ejecutivo número 34 de 15 de noviembre de 1956 se declararon las reservas indígenas Nombre82221, Salitre Cabagra y China Kichá. La Asamblea Legislativa por Ley número 2330 de 9 de abril de 1959, aprobó el convenio número 107 de la Organización Internacional del Trabajo relativo a la "Protección e integración de las poblaciones indígenas y de otras poblaciones tribales y semitribales", el cual reconoce su legítimo derecho a tener bajo su dominio las tierras de su propiedad, sea ello en forma individual y colectiva y que la sucesión se regirá por los principios de las costumbres de los pueblos. La Ley de Tierras y Colonización número 2825 de 14 de octubre de 1961 también incorporó un capítulo referido al tema con el objeto de proteger esas tierras y a las razas autóctonas. A partir de esta normativa, por Decretos ejecutivos número 11 del 2 de abril de de 1996, y 26 de 12 de noviembre, se ordenó inscribir a nombre del Instituto de Tierras y Colonización, hoy Instituto de Desarrollo Agrario las tres reservas indígenas creadas en 1956 (véase el voto de la Sala Primera de la Corte Suprema de Justicia, No.223 de las 15:30 horas del 6 de julio de 1990).
El Derecho Internacional, por su parte, ha sido generoso en el reconocimiento de derechos de estas comunidades, entre dichos instrumentos se destaca la Declaración Universal de los Derechos Humanos (artículos 1, 2.1, 7, 17.1 y 27), Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Políticos (27), Pacto Internacional de Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales (1.1 y 2), Declaración Americana de los Derechos y Deberes del Hombre (2, 13 y 23), Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos (24 y 26). La Organización Internacional del Trabajo ha sido la pionera en el tema de protección indígena. Los convenios números 107 y 169 contienen una detallada numeración de derechos reconocidos a estos pueblos. Ambos Convenios -107 y 169- en su Parte II, regulan sobre el régimen de propiedad de las tierras indígenas. Por otro lado, la jurisprudencia constitucional número 1786-93 de las 16:21 horas de 21 de abril de 1993, 06229-99 de las 14:30 horas del 11 de agosto de 1999, entre otras, reconocen la protección especial a su territorio y cultura en razón de sus condiciones de vulnerabilidad, no solo actual, sino también pasada, y sin otros límites que los mismos derechos humanos imponen a la conducta de todos los seres humanos.
No cabe duda, por ende, que el Estado costarricense ha reconocido en forma amplia los derechos que corresponden a los grupos indígenas que habitan el país. Además se ha sostenido que los grupos de personas pertenecientes a las comunidades autóctonas tienen el derecho de vivir en las tierras donde históricamente han estado asentados, y el Estado debe garantizar plenamente el disfrute de este derecho fundamental. Reconoce de esa forma, nuestra jurisprudencia constitucional, una jerarquía superior a los Convenios Internacionales, tales como el de la OIT, N° 169 (Ley 7316 del 3 de noviembre de 1992), un grado de tutela superior a las personas y comunidades indígenas, es decir, un “nivel elevado de protección” respecto de aquellos derechos humanos contemplados en la propia Constitución Política, y que por ende exigen el respeto, en los Tribunales ordinarios, de las decisiones que por la vía de la costumbre y la autodeterminación de dichos pueblos indígenas se deriven de las propias comunidades y sus representantes.
IV.Sobre la propiedad de las comunidades indígenas. Importante es indicar sobre el carácter colectivo o comunitario de la propiedad indígena, ya que la pertenencia de ésta no es personal, sino del colectivo como tal. Entre los indígenas existe una tradición comunitaria sobre una forma comunal de la propiedad colectiva de la tierra, en el sentido de que la pertenencia a ésta no se centra en un individuo sino en el grupo y su comunidad. Los indígenas por el hecho de su propia existencia tienen derecho a vivir libremente en sus propios territorios; la estrecha relación que los indígenas mantienen con la tierra debe de ser reconocida y comprendida como la base fundamental de sus culturas, su vida espiritual, su integridad y su supervivencia económica. Las asociaciones de Desarrollo, como “estructura comunitaria”, son las competentes para disponer de la posesión de la tierra a fin de garantizar el acceso a ella a todos los pobladores indígenas, y en lo que atañe a la propiedad indígena por ser de carácter colectiva, resultan inaplicables las normas sobre derechos individuales para la tutela de la propiedad y la posesión individuales dispuestas en el ordenamiento jurídico al efecto.
El artículo 3 de la Ley Indígena dispone que las reservas sean regidas por los indígenas en sus estructuras comunitarias tradicionales o de las leyes de la República que los rijan. La Ley Indígena declaró propiedad de las comunidades indígenas las reservas mencionadas en el artículo primero de esa ley. Como vemos, se deben atender los mecanismos de control utilizados en las mismas poblaciones indígenas, y cuando no es posible debe tomarse siempre en consideración las costumbres de la población indígena. Es evidente que en nuestro país, la mayor parte de poblaciones indígenas, tienen un grado de evolución cultural bastante avanzado, y por su forma de organización actual, a través de Asociaciones de Desarrollo, se busca la solución de conflictos internamente, y solo en casos extremos, se acude a la vía represiva de los Tribunales, que en todo caso están obligados a acatar las disposiciones de los citados convenios internacionales.
De lo contrario “[…] se estaría desconociendo el derecho fundamental de los Indígenas a tener sus propios organismos representativos y a poder actuar en forma autónoma en la defensa de sus derechos […]” (véase resolución de la Sala Constitucional N° 2005-06856, de las 10:02 horas del 1 de junio de 2005). Para las comunidades indígenas la relación con la tierra no es meramente una cuestión de posesión y producción sino un elemento material y espiritual del que deben gozar plenamente, inclusive para preservar su legado cultural y transmitirlo a las generaciones futuras. El derecho consuetudinario de los pueblos indígenas debe ser tenido especialmente en cuenta, para los efectos de que se trata como producto de la costumbre, la posesión de la tierra debería bastar para que las comunidades indígenas que carezcan de un título real sobre la propiedad de la tierra obtengan el reconocimiento oficial de dicha propiedad y el consiguiente registro.
Una reserva indígena, es una propiedad agraria originaria y de carácter colectivo, no pudiendo reclamarse sobre ella ningún derecho de propiedad o de posesión individual en perjuicio de la comunidad de pertenencia, siendo su propietario la totalidad de la comunidad, no pudiendo ser desmembrada en propiedad privada precisamente por su naturaleza jurídica destinada a la colectividad. A la luz de la jurisprudencia sobre derechos humanos de los indígenas, emanada de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, se dispuso que un tratado internacional de derechos humanos tiene sentido autónomo, por lo que no pueden ser equiparados al sentido que se les atribuye en el derecho interno. Además, expuso que dichos tratados de derechos humanos son instrumentos vivos cuya interpretación tiene que adecuarse a la evolución de los tiempos, y, en particular, a las condiciones de vida actuales. Han mantenido que, el artículo 29.b de la Convención establece que ninguna disposición puede ser interpretada en el sentido de “limitar el goce y ejercicio de cualquier derecho o libertad que pueda estar reconocido de acuerdo con las leyes de cualquiera de los Estados partes o de acuerdo con otra convención en que sea parte uno de dichos Estados.
Ahora bien, si realizamos una interpretación evolutiva de los instrumentos internacionales de protección derechos humanos, además tomamos en cuenta las normas de interpretación aplicables y, de conformidad con el artículo 29.b de la Convención- que prohibe una interpretación restrictiva de los derechos-, dicha Corte ha considerado que el artículo 21 de la Convención protege el derecho a la propiedad en un sentido que comprende, entre otros, los derechos de los miembros de las comunidades indígenas en el marco de la propiedad comunal.
De tal forma, que esta Sala ha concluido que el artículo 2 de la Ley Indígena tiene su debido sustento en el cumplimiento de una serie de obligaciones internacionales en materia de derechos humanos, en particular, procura que los pueblos indígenas “puedan efectivamente conservar sus derechos sobre los territorios ancestrales, comprendiendo no sólo la tierra en sí misma, sino también las aguas, zonas marinas, plantas, animales y otros recursos naturales que en total forman los nexos sociales, culturales, materiales y espirituales de la vida del indígena”. Lo que lejos de resultar inconstitucional, resulta plenamente compatible con el Derecho de la Constitución.
Asimismo, en tal voto se hizo expresa referencia a la relación entre los artículos 2 y 5 de la Ley Indígena, respecto del artículo 45 de la Constitución Política. Este Tribunal resolvió lo siguiente:
“V.- Finalmente, en lo referente específicamente a la acusada infracción al artículo 45 de la Constitución Política, los accionantes reconocen que la Ley Indígena, en su artículo 5, establece -en lo que interesa- que:
“Artículo 5º.- En el caso de personas no indígenas que sean propietarias o poseedoras de buena fe dentro de las reservas indígenas, el ITCO deberá reubicarlas en otras tierras similares, si ellas lo desearen; si no fuere posible reubicarlas o ellas no aceptaren la reubicación, deberá expropiarlas e indemnizarlas conforme a los procedimientos establecidos en la Ley de Expropiaciones.” Sea, la propia Ley Indígena reconoce, expresamente, la obligación de expropiar a los propietarios y poseedores de buena fe, justamente en tutela del artículo 45 constitucional. Según se deriva de la lectura del escrito de interposición, más que un eventual vicio en el contenido de las disposiciones normativas impugnadas en la presente acción, lo que parece acusarse en la especie es un eventual incumplimiento de lo dispuesto en el citado ordinal 5 de la Ley Indígena, así como un conflicto respecto de su debida interpretación y aplicación en determinados supuestos. Lo que no implica, ni supone, que los artículos 1 y 2 de la Ley Indígena -en cuanto declaran ciertas reservas indígenas y declaran que las mismas son propiedad de las comunidades indígenas- sean inconstitucionales. En la eventualidad que a una persona en particular no se le haya expropiado a la fecha, así podrá reclamarse en las instancias correspondientes. Debe recordarse que esta Sala ha señalado que el:
“(...) objeto de un proceso de inconstitucionalidad no es atender una lesión individual que pueda alegar el actor, por el contrario, tiene como objeto un interés general de que los actos sujetos al derecho público y las normas que integran el ordenamiento jurídico, sean conformes con el Derecho de la Constitución.” (voto nro. 2013-002902 de las 14:30 horas del 5 de marzo de 2013).”
Consideraciones plenamente aplicables al caso en estudio, al no existir motivo alguno que justifique variar de criterio.
DE LA JURISPRUDENCIA DE LA SALA PRIMERA DE LA CORTE SUPREMA DE JUSTICIA. Por lo demás, los principales reproches del accionante se circunscriben a la línea jurisprudencial de la Sala Primera relacionada con los numerales 2, 3 y 5 de la Ley Indígena, contenida -entre otras- en sentencias 920-FS1-2015, 2046-F-S1-2020 y 2878-F-S1-2020; en cuyo caso, recientemente, mediante sentencia nro. 2022-024725 de las 12:41 horas del 19 de octubre de 2022, este Tribunal se pronunció sobre tal línea jurisprudencial -respecto de reparos análogos a los formulados en esta nueva acción- y estimó lo siguiente:
“II.- Objeto de la acción. La parte accionante formula acción para que se declare inconstitucional la jurisprudencia de la Sala Primera de Casación (sentencias nros. 000920-F-S1-2015 de las 14:30 horas del 6 de agosto de 2015, 002848-A-S1-2020 de las 10:10 horas del 3 de diciembre de 2020, 002878-F-S1-2020 de las 10:35 horas del 10 de diciembre de 2020 y 000681-F-S1-2021 de las 10:00 horas del 25 de marzo de 2021), concerniente al artículo 3 de la Ley Indígena, por estimarla contraria a los numerales 9, 11, 41 y 45 de la Constitución Política, y a los principios de buena fe, confianza legítima y no confiscación, así como al ordinal 21 inciso 2 de la CADH. Expone que el artículo 3 de la Ley Indígena dispone: “ Las reservas indígenas son inalienables e imprescriptibles, no transferibles y exclusivas para las comunidades indígenas que las habitan. Los no indígenas no podrán alquilar, arrendar, comprar o de cualquier otra manera adquirir terrenos o fincas comprendidas dentro de estas reservas.
Los indígenas sólo (sic) podrán negociar sus tierras con otros indígenas. Todo traspaso o negociación de tierras o mejoras de éstas (sic) en las reservas indígenas, entre indígenas y no indígenas, es absolutamente nulo, con las consecuencias legales del caso (…)”. Esgrime que, según la jurisprudencia impugnada, quienes obtienen terrenos en las reservas indígenas al amparo del Registro Nacional, a pesar de que no exista anotación registral indicando que la finca adquirida se encuentra incluida dentro de una reserva indígena, son adquirentes de mala fe. Alega que tal criterio lesiona el artículo 45 de la Constitución Política. En su lugar, sostiene que la norma debe interpretarse, en el sentido de que las propiedades privadas ubicadas en una reserva indígena se incorporan jurídicamente a esta a partir del cumplimiento del trámite expropiatorio contemplado en el artículo 5 eiusdem. Arguye que hay personas, como su representada, que adquirieron propiedades en reservas indígenas posterior a su constitución, pero amparadas en que registralmente no había anotación alguna; empero, actualmente, por el criterio cuestionado, no son objeto de expropiación, pues injustamente se aduce que no adquirieron el inmueble de buena fe.
Tal situación implica una confiscación ilegítima de la propiedad, pues un bien inmueble es trasladado al régimen de propiedad indígena sin el pago previo de la indemnización respectiva. Argumenta que, mientras la Administración no cumpla con la expropiación, las fincas adquiridas de buena fe, tanto antes como después de la creación de la respectiva reserva indígena, se deben mantener en manos de dominio privado, pues no ha existido una afectación al régimen especial que las haga inalienables, imprescriptibles, intransferibles y exclusivas de las comunidades indígenas. Enfatiza en que el irrespeto a los derechos adquiridos al amparo de la fe registral implica una expropiación de hecho, contraria al numeral 45 de la Constitución, al ordinal 21.2 de la CADH y al principio de no confiscación; también se trasgreden los principios de buena fe y confianza legítima, por cuanto numerosas personas, sin saber que formaban parte de reservas indígenas, adquirieron propiedades que registralmente no estaban sujetas a algún tipo de gravamen oculto, lo que justifica que se les tenga como propietarios de buena fe.
Alega que, la incuria de la Administración para anotar tales fincas en el Registro Público de la Propiedad configura una conducta omisiva, violatoria de los principios constitucionales de la buena fe, la confianza legítima, la seguridad jurídica y el derecho a la propiedad, que no puede perjudicar a terceros adquirentes de buena fe, como justamente es el caso de su representada. Respecto de la violación de los artículos 9 y 41 de la Constitución Política, señala que de esos ordinales y el 11 deriva el principio de la responsabilidad patrimonial de la Administración, con base en el cual los derechos de los administrados deben ser respetados por todas las autoridades estatales, incluidos los tribunales de justicia. Sin embargo, estos eventualmente podrían considerar que hay otros principios de más alto linaje que deben proteger por encima de los citados principios constitucionales de la buena fe y de la confianza legítima y el derecho a la propiedad; verbigracia, la tutela de la propiedad indígena.
No obstante, aduce que cuando los tribunales tutelan la propiedad indígena por encima de los citados principios constitucionales de buena fe y de la confianza legítima y el derecho a la propiedad, se viene a transgredir el principio constitucional de la responsabilidad patrimonial extracontractual del Estado por acto lícito y funcionamiento normal, específicamente por actividad jurisdiccional, dado que el Estado ejerce esta función como una de sus tareas esenciales, según la relación de los artículos 9, 11, 41, 152 y siguientes de la Carta Magna, responsabilidad desarrollada en los numerales 190 y 194 de la LGAP.
(...)
IV.Sobre la alegada inconstitucionalidad. En el sub lite, la parte accionante formula acción para se declare inconstitucional la jurisprudencia de la Sala Primera de Casación (sentencias nros. 000920-F-S1-2015 de las 14:30 horas del 6 de agosto de 2015, 002848-A-S1-2020 de las 10:10 horas del 3 de diciembre de 2020, 002878-F-S1-2020 de las 10:35 horas del 10 de diciembre de 2020 y 000681-F-S1-2021 de las 10:00 horas del 25 de marzo de 2021), concerniente al artículo 3 de la Ley Indígena, por estimarla contraria a los artículos 9, 11, 41 y 45 de la Constitución Política, y a los principios de buena fe, confianza legítima y no confiscación, así como al ordinal 21 inciso 2 de la CADH. En tal sentido, según tal jurisprudencia, quienes adquieren terrenos en las reservas indígenas al amparo del Registro Nacional (sin anotación registral que indique que la finca adquirida se encuentra dentro de una reserva indígena), no son adquirentes de buena fe, y debido a ello, se les niega la indemnización que establece el ordinal 5 de la Ley Indígena. Ahora, sobre el particular, el numeral 3 eiusdem dispone:
“Artículo 3º.- Las reservas indígenas son inalienables e imprescriptibles, no transferibles y exclusivas para las comunidades indígenas que las habitan. Los no indígenas no podrán alquilar, arrendar, comprar o de cualquier otra manera adquirir terrenos o fincas comprendidas dentro de estas reservas. Los indígenas sólo (sic) podrán negociar sus tierras con otros indígenas . Todo traspaso o negociación de tierras o mejoras de éstas (sic) en las reservas indígenas, entre indígenas y no indígenas, es absolutamente nulo, con las consecuencias legales del caso. Las tierras y sus mejoras y los productos de las reservas indígenas estarán exentos de toda clase de impuestos nacionales o municipales, presentes o futuros.”.
Por su parte, el ordinal 5 eiusdem estatuye:
Artículo 5º.- En el caso de personas no indígenas que sean propietarias o poseedoras de buena fe dentro de las reservas indígenas, el ITCO deberá reubicarlas en otras tierras similares, si ellas lo desearen; si no fuere posible reubicarlas o ellas no aceptaren la reubicación, deberá expropiarlas e indemnizarlas conforme a los procedimientos establecidos en la Ley de Expropiaciones (…)”.
Así, el accionante cuestiona concretamente que la jurisprudencia impugnada determina que la “buena fe” exigida por la norma supracitada no se configura, cuando una persona adquiere una propiedad posterior a la constitución de una reserva indígena, independientemente de que en el Registro Público no se visualice anotación o restricción alguna sobre el inmueble. En tal sentido, considera contrario al Derecho de la Constitución que en estos casos no se indemnice con sustento en tal interpretación.
Ahora bien, interesa traer a colación lo dispuesto por la Sala Primera de Casación en la sentencia n.° 920-F-S1-2015 de las 14:30 horas del 6 de agosto de 2015, citada por el recurrente:
“V.- El parágrafo segundo del artículo primero de la Ley Indígena, no. 6172 del 29 de noviembre de 1977, declaró como reservas indígenas las definidas en los Decretos Ejecutivos 5904-G del 10 abril de 1976, 6036-G del 12 de junio de 1976, 6037-G del 15 de junio de 1976, 7267-G y 7268-G del 20 de agosto de 1977, así como la que denominó “Reserva Indígena de Guaymí de Burica”. De más está advertir primero, que los decretos allí enlistados posteriormente han sido objeto de reformas; y en segundo término –y por ser de particular interés en este asunto-, que los límites de la última reserva (establecida de forma directa y expresa por el legislador) fueron inicialmente determinados en el Decreto Ejecutivo 8514 del 2 de mayo de 1978, norma que además modificó su denominación a “Guaymí de Conte-Burica”, nombre que luego fue nuevamente variado por el de “Guaymí de Conteburica” mediante Decreto 13545 del 26 de abril de 1982.
Dichas reservas son propiedad de las comunidades indígenas conforme el artículo 2 ejúsdem. El precepto 3 del mismo cuerpo legal dispone además que éstas (sic) “son inalienables e imprescriptibles, no transferibles y exclusivas para las comunidades indígenas que las habitan. Los no indígenas no podrán alquilar, arrendar, comprar o de cualquier otra manera adquirir terrenos o fincas comprendidas dentro de estas reservas. Los indígenas sólo (sic) podrán negociar sus tierras con otros indígenas. Todo traspaso o negociación de tierras o mejoras de éstas (sic) en las reservas indígenas, entre indígenas y no indígenas, es absolutamente nulo, con las consecuencias legales del caso. Las tierras y sus mejoras y los productos de las reservas indígenas estarán exentos de toda clase de impuestos nacionales o municipales, presentes o futuros” (la negrita se agrega). Por su parte, el canon 5 establece que “En el caso de personas no indígenas que sean propietarias o poseedoras de buena fe dentro de las reservas indígenas, el ITCO deberá reubicarlas en otras tierras similares, si ellas lo desearen; si no fuere posible reubicarlas o ellas no aceptaren la reubicación, deberá expropiarlas e indemnizarlas conforme a los procedimientos establecidos en la Ley de Expropiaciones. [.-] (…) Si posteriormente hubiere invasión de personas no indígenas a las reservas, de inmediato las autoridades competentes deberán proceder a su desalojo, sin pago de indemnización alguna.
(…)”. De las anteriores normas se comprende que: A) los terrenos comprendidos en las reservas indígenas son inalienables, intransferibles; B) las personas no indígenas no pueden adquirir por título alguno dichos terrenos o derechos sobre ellos; y C) las personas no indígenas propietarias o poseedoras de buena fe tienen derecho a ser reubicadas o en su defecto expropiadas, pero ello será siempre y cuando el ejercicio de la posesión o de los actos como propietario haya sido de buena fe, lo que necesariamente requiere que aquéllos tuviesen esa condición de previo a la entrada en vigencia de la Ley Indígena o bien de los diversos Decretos Ejecutivos que, en desarrollo de su artículo primero, definen los límites físicos de las reservas (y en cumplimiento –claro está- de la Convención Americana sobre los Derechos Humanos (Pacto de San José), el Convenio 169 de la Organización Internacional de Trabajo, Declaración de las Naciones Unidas sobre los Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas y las reglas de Brasilia).
Aquel elemento temporal (cual es: anterioridad al establecimiento de la reserva por la Ley Indígena o bien, de previo a la incorporación del terreno mediante los decretos ejecutivos que le desarrollan) es consustancial a la posesión o titularidad que da lugar al derecho a la reubicación o indemnización. Es decir, integra su presupuesto, ya que es un factor determinante de la buena fe. Si bien no se halla contenido de forma expresa en la norma 5, se desprende con claridad de la relación con el artículo 3. Nótese en primer término que en ese mandato 5, el legislador tomó como presupuesto fáctico el que para ese momento (emisión de la Ley) personas no indígenas se encontraban ejerciendo de buena fe actos posesorios o como propietarios (al margen de su inscripción registral), y a ellos reconoció derecho a la reubicación o a la indemnización en el párrafo primero. En consecuencia, un sujeto no indígena que haya comenzado con el ejercicio de actos de posesión o propiedad después de la inclusión del terreno en una reserva, no puede estimarse de buena fe.
En esa línea, ha de comprenderse que en el artículo 3, luego de establecer que las reservas indígenas son inalienables e intransferibles, se impide a los sujetos no indígenas, todos (tanto a aquellos propietarios o poseedores que reconoció en el primer acápite del mandato 5, como aquellos que no lo fueren, pues no hace distinción), concurrir o ser beneficiarios en cualquier acto o negocio traslativo de dominio. De esta manera, en el caso en que transgrediesen esa prohibición, han de ser calificados como invasores y desalojados sin indemnización alguna, conforme al párrafo tercero del precepto 5. En otras palabras, desde el momento cuando el terreno es integrado mediante el Decreto respectivo a una reserva indígena (bien los enlistados en el canon primero de la Ley, bien los que posteriormente le desarrollan), el sujeto no indígena que hasta entonces ejercía de buena fe la posesión o actos como propietario, tiene el derecho a ser reubicado o en su defecto expropiado e indemnizado, precisamente por cuanto su derecho colisiona con el derecho real de propiedad que ostenta la comunidad indígena según le atribuye el acápite segundo del artículo 2 de la Ley Indígena.
A partir de ese momento, además se produce –como manifestó la Sala Constitucional en la sentencia 2097-2011 del 23 de febrero de 2011- el congelamiento del inmueble; y a raíz de ello el individuo que hasta entonces ejercía posesión o propiedad con todos los atributos, tiene restringida absolutamente la facultad de disponer de su derecho sobre ese terreno, así se contempló en ese numeral tercero de la normativa legal. Por consiguiente, no lleva razón el casacionista en cuanto alega errónea interpretación de los cánones 3 y 5 de la Ley Indígena. Tampoco hay violación a los cánones 45 de la Carta Magna y 286 del Código Civil, pues sus argumentos respecto de estas dos últimas normas pendían de la interpretación de las primeras. Y en particular, por cuanto es precisamente en razón de esa colisión con el derecho de dominio establecido a favor de la comunidad indígena y de esa restricción absoluta en la facultad de disposición que trastoca ese contenido esencial de su derecho, que la Ley ordena al Inder la reubicación o la expropiación, en respeto al canon 45 constitucional, lo cual habrá de ser implementado adicionalmente con la aplicación de la normativa internacional indicada y la Ley de Expropiaciones, no 7495 (…)”. (El resaltado no corresponde al original).
Asimismo, en la sentencia n.° 2848-A-S1-2020 de las 10:10 horas del 3 de diciembre de 2020, también referida por el recurrente, la instancia de casación dispuso:
“XVII. (…) Por otro lado, respecto a lo manifestado en torno a los preceptos 5 y 8 de la Ley Indígena, el recurrente no cuestionó lo acreditado por el Tribunal en los hechos probados números 2 y 3 respecto a la creación de la Reserva Indígena Matambú y a que fue debidamente delimitada en el año 1980, mediante Decreto Ejecutivo no. 11564, encontrándose dentro de ella la finca en litigio, matrícula no. 28530-000. Por el contrario, como ya se indicó, dicha situación fáctica es plenamente aceptada por la parte actora en los hechos 2 y 4 de la demanda. Como se expuso al analizar el agravio anterior, al tener pleno conocimiento el actor de los Decretos Ejecutivos, no solo de creación de dicha Reserva Indígena; sino también, el de su delimitación, abarcando la heredad en litigio, lo señalado por el Tribunal, de que, cuando el actor adquirió el fundo litigioso ya formaba parte de la Reserva Indígena, por lo cual no debe considerársele como un adquirente o poseedor de buena fe, pues, no puede alegar desconocimiento de la normativa jurídica vigente en ese momento; siendo la negociación y el traspaso del inmueble absolutamente nulos de pleno derecho conforme lo dispone el artículo 3 de la Ley Indígena, el cual configura normativa especial en esta materia, lejos de desvirtuase, se confirma.
Ergo, la demanda no podía prosperar. Por demás, el casacionista no cuestionó la conclusión del Tribunal de la nulidad de pleno derecho de la negociación y traspaso, en virtud de lo dispuesto en el canon 3 de la Ley Indígena, lo cual, por sí solo, torna anodino lo señalado por el recurrente. Por otro lado, en torno al aserto del casacionista de que “Respecto a esta norma [se refiere al artículo 5 de la Ley Indígena], el Tribunal aplica indebidamente esta norma, ya que si bien establece que mi representado no cumple con los requisitos de este artículo, no considera que de haber el INDER expropiado al propietario legítimo, mi representado no estaría en esta situación.” Tal afirmación no es de recibo. Como se ha indicado, a la luz de lo expuesto en el hecho 4 de la demanda y en el hecho probado no. 3 de la sentencia cuestionada, el actor tenía pleno conocimiento de la existencia del Decreto Ejecutivo no. 11564 del 2 de junio de 1980, publicado en el diario oficial La Gaceta no. 115 del 18 de junio de ese año, mediante el cual quedó debidamente delimitada la Reserva Indígena Matambú, abarcando el inmueble en litigio.
Es por esta situación que, además de no poder considerársele como adquirente o poseedor de buena fe; a tenor de lo dispuesto en el ordinal 3 de la Ley Indígena, se repite, norma especial tratándose de Reservas Indígenas, la negociación y traspaso del fundo a su favor son absolutamente nulos de pleno derecho; razones por las cuales la demanda no podía prosperar.
XVIII.Respecto a lo indicado en el punto 2) “Normas Respecto al Título de Propiedad y Fe Registral”, como se indicó en el apartado anterior, lo dispuesto en el precepto 3 de la Ley Indígena reproducido en el considerando VI de esta resolución, tocante a que “Todo traspaso o negociación de tierras o mejoras de éstas (sic) en las reservas indígenas, entre indígenas y no indígenas, es absolutamente nulo, con las consecuencias legales del caso.”, constituye norma especial aplicable a los fundos ubicados en las Reservas Indígenas. De ahí que, para litigios en donde se alude, analice o discuta la negociación o traspaso de tierras o mejoras en reservas indígenas entre indígenas y no indígenas, como en esta lite, la normativa aplicable es esa y no la contenida en otros cuerpos legales como, verbigracia, el Código Civil. Ergo, lo señalado por el casacionsita en torno a la falta de aplicación de la normativa civil no es de recibo (…)”. (El resaltado no corresponde al original).
En el mismo sentido, en la sentencia n.° 2848-A-S1-2020 de las 10:10 horas del 3 de diciembre de 2020, también aludida por el accionante, se determinó:
“V. En criterio de esta Cámara -consúltese la resolución N° 920-F-S1-2015 de las 14 horas 30 minutos del 6 de agosto de 2015- de la Ley Indígena se pueden extraer los siguientes aspectos: a) los territorios indígenas son inalienables e intransferibles; b) los no indígenas no pueden adquirir por ningún título los terrenos que se encuentren dentro de la reserva y c) los no indígenas propietarios o poseedores de buena fe, tienen derecho a ser reubicados o en su defecto a ser indemnizados y con ello expropiados; esto último, siempre en el entendido de que la posesión o propiedad se haya ejercido al amparo de la buena fe. Lo anterior implica, tener dicha condición de previo a la entrada en vigencia de la Ley Indígena o de los Decretos Ejecutivos que haya incluido a un territorio dentro de una reserva. Este elemento temporal, de anterioridad al establecimiento de la reserva por ley o mediante decreto ejecutivo, resulta consustancial a la posesión o titularidad que da lugar al derecho de reubicación o indemnización.
Es decir, este presupuesto es un factor determinante de la buena fe. En consecuencia, un sujeto no indígena que haya comenzado con el ejercicio de actos de posesión o propiedad después de la inclusión del terreno en una reserva, no puede estimarse de buena fe. Es por lo anterior, que la propia ley ha declarado estas tierras como inalienables e intransferibles, por ello se entiende una prohibición expresa para los no indígenas de concurrir o ser beneficiarios en cualquier acto o negocio traslativo de dominio. Si se transgrede este impedimento, tales personas deberán ser calificados como invasores y se exige su desalojo sin indemnización alguna. Dicho de otra manera, desde el momento cuando el terreno es integrado mediante decreto o ley, el no indígena que hasta entonces ejercía actos de posesión o propiedad de buena fe, tiene el derecho a ser reubicado o en su defecto indemnizado y expropiado; pues su derecho colisiona con el derecho real de propiedad que ostenta a partir de ese momento la comunidad indígena conforme se lo atribuye el artículo 2 de la Ley Indígena.
Es a partir de ese instante, que se produce el congelamiento del inmueble; así lo ha estipulado la Sala Constitucional en fallo 2097-2011 del 23 de febrero de 2011. El individuo que hasta entonces ejercía su derecho con todos los atributos, tiene restringida absolutamente la facultad de disponer de su derecho sobre el bien. Aunado a lo anterior, en esa misma resolución, determinó esta Cámara, que cuando una persona pretenda la indemnización por estar su terreno dentro de reserva indígena, se hace necesario que además de ser sujeto no indígena y poseedor o propietario de buena fe, conforme a las reglas ya establecidas; en adición a esos dos elementos y en atención a lo dispuesto en el artículo 317 del Código Procesal Civil ley 7130 (de aplicación supletoria en este caso, así lo permite el numeral 220 del Código Procesal Contencioso Administrativo), le corresponde al actor demostrar mediante prueba contundente como lo sería una pericial fundada en el examen de los planos de los terrenos, para evidenciar sin duda alguna que el terreno en discusión se encuentra dentro de reserva indígena.
VI. (…) Ahora bien, por otro lado, al margen de la comprobación de que los inmuebles en cuestión forman parte de la Reserva, se hace necesario manifestar en esta resolución, por ser objeto de esta litis, que tal y como se indicó en considerandos anteriores, de las pruebas aportadas por el actor, se extrae que este adquirió el terreno el 17 de septiembre de 2013; lo que significa 37 años después de haber sido establecida la Reserva y 36 años con posterioridad a la promulgación de la Ley Indígena. Según se ha expuesto en este fallo , no se puede tener a Nombre82222 como un adquirente de buena fe, pues la Reserva Indígena de Quitirrisí tenía más de tres décadas de estar constituida y protegida. En la demanda se indica que el actor es vecino de Quitirrisí, es decir, de la misma zona donde está la Reserva, de allí que incluso no resulte creíble para esta Cámara que el señor Nombre82223 no sabía que estaba adquiriendo un terreno dentro de zona protegida y propiedad colectiva de la población indígena; y por ende un bien no susceptible de negocio jurídico. Así las cosas, no lleva razón el recurrente y sus reparos deberán ser denegados.”. (El resaltado no corresponde al original).
Atinente a tales criterios, la Procuraduría General de la República aduce que la Sala de Casación no hace más que interpretar correctamente los alcances de las normas antes citadas, con apego al ordinal 45 de la Constitución Política.
En este sentido, señala que efectivamente se reconoce que las personas no indígenas propietarias o poseedoras de buena fe tienen derecho a ser indemnizadas (expropiadas) si tal condición de propietario o poseedor fue adquirida de previo a la vigencia de la Ley Indígena o de los decretos ejecutivos que establecieron los límites físicos de las respectivas reservas indígenas. Por el contrario, una persona no indígena que haya comenzado a ejecutar actos de posesión o propiedad sobre un inmueble posterior a la inclusión de ese terreno dentro de una reserva indígena, no puede considerarse de buena fe, pues la delimitación física de esa reserva ya había sido establecida, y, por ende, tales terrenos ya ostentaban las condiciones de intransferibles e inalienables.
A partir de lo anterior, la Procuraduría considera que, cuando un terreno es integrado a una reserva indígena a través del respectivo decreto, la persona no indígena que hasta ese momento ejercía de buena fe los actos de posesión o propiedad tiene derecho a la reubicación o indemnización que estatuye el artículo 5 eiusdem; empero, distinta es la situación del eventual surgimiento de un nuevo propietario registral, a quien se le hubiera trasladado la propiedad ya afectada por la limitación de reserva indígena. En ese caso, la jurisprudencia impugnada ha señalado, por un lado, que se trata de un negocio traslativo de dominio absolutamente nulo pues contraviene el artículo 3 de la Ley Indígena, y, por otro, en semejante situación se descarta la buena fe en la adquisición de la propiedad.
Al respecto, esta Cámara concluye que los criterios jurisprudenciales cuestionados no contravienen el Derecho de la Constitución.
Precisamente, el numeral 5 de la Ley Indígena señala que se requiere acreditar la “buena fe” para que resulte procedente reubicar o indemnizar a una persona no indígena poseedora o propietaria de un inmueble que se ubique dentro de una reserva indígena; sin embargo, el artículo 3 eiusdem también estatuye que las reservas indígenas son inalienables, imprescriptibles y no transferibles, a la vez que expresamente dispone: “Los no indígenas no podrán alquilar, arrendar, comprar o de cualquier otra manera adquirir terrenos o fincas comprendidas dentro de estas reservas. (…)”.
Así las cosas, se aprecia que, en las sentencias aludidas por el accionante, la Sala Primera de Casación ha comprendido que el elemento “buena fe” no es posible acreditarlo, cuando, con posterioridad a la constitución de una reserva indígena (a través del respectivo decreto ejecutivo), una persona adquiere una propiedad dentro de los límites de tal espacio restringido, toda vez que, a partir del momento en que normativamente se establece esa zona como reserva indígena deviene jurídicamente improcedente ejecutar tal acto traslativo de dominio, toda vez que el inmueble en cuestión es intransferible por imperativo de ley.
De esta forma, la Sala descarta que tal interpretación resulte contraria al ordinal 45 de la Constitución Política, pues, precisamente, con apego a esta norma constitucional, las personas que de buena fe ostentaban la titularidad de un inmueble previo a que este integrara el régimen de propiedad indígena deben ser indemnizadas por la afectación sufrida, pues la propiedad sobre tal bien de manera ulterior pasó a una comunidad indígena. Lógicamente, a partir de que se ha constituido una reserva indígena (mediante los decretos ejecutivos señalados en el artículo 1 de la propia Ley Indígena), carece de plausibilidad jurídica que una persona no indígena pueda adquirir válidamente una propiedad dentro de tal zona restringida, cuya delimitación física ya ha sido debidamente establecida y publicada a través de los decretos ejecutivos correspondientes. Semejante adquisición, como lo señala el ordinal 3 de la propia Ley Indígena, es absolutamente nula pues la propiedad ya era intransferible. Obsérvese que la reserva indígena y su debida delimitación espacial se constituye a partir del decreto ejecutivo correspondiente, no hasta el momento en que se da una eventual expropiación en los términos del ordinal 5 de la Ley Indígena, como sugiere el recurrente.
Asimismo, la parte accionante arguye que, independientemente de que el acto traslativo de dominio se hubiera efectuado luego de estar debidamente constituida la reserva indígena, existe buena fe del adquirente, quien actuó amparado en la seguridad jurídica que otorga la publicidad registral, pues no se había incorporado anotación o restricción alguna sobre ese inmueble en el Registro Público. Por ello, argumenta que la denegatorio de la debida indemnización quebranta los principios de buena fe registral y confianza legítima.
No obstante, conforme se indicó ut supra, el negocio jurídico mediante el cual se trasladó el dominio del inmueble se ha dado contra legem, puesto que la propiedad ya se encontraba afectada por el régimen de propiedad indígena, de ahí que, al margen de lo indicado en el Registro Público para el momento del acto negocial, el bien inmueble no podía ser objeto de comercio ni podía ser transferido a una persona ajena a la comunidad indígena.
Relacionado con tal tesitura, atinente al principio de confianza legítima (alegado por el recurrente) conviene resaltar, lo que esta Sala ha señalado:
“En resumen, el principio de confianza legítima descansa sobre la base de que el ciudadano asume un comportamiento confiando en que actúa de manera correcta, toda vez que la conducta constante, estable y a lo largo del tiempo de la Administración le genera razonablemente tal expectativa; dicho de otra forma, la Administración ha emitido signos externos que han venido a orientar al ciudadano hacia una cierta conducta y le han hecho confiar de buena fe en que tal situación persistirá. Como señala Meza Valencia (2013), “la confianza del particular surge con ocasión del nacimiento en el mundo jurídico de una palabra dada o promesa de la administración, pero se fortalece y arraiga con la cadena de conductas posteriores asumidas por la administración, toda vez que estas vayan orientadas a fortalecer y desarrollar la palabra emitida previamente. Sin la existencia de dichos actos posteriores armónicos y coherentes, la promesa dada previamente pierde su vocación de consolidación de la confianza legítima (…)
La jurisprudencia constitucional costarricense ya ha reconocido este principio, como se advierte en los siguientes antecedentes:
"(...) Sobre el desarrollo de este principio y su profunda raigambre constitucional, la doctrina nacional ha manifestado lo siguiente: "Este principio surge en la República Federal de Alemania y, luego, es recogido por la jurisprudencia del Tribunal de Justicia de la Comunidad Europea, para definir una situación digna de ser amparada al haber sido violada la confianza puesta en la acción de la Administración Pública. El Tribunal Supremo Español, en su sentencia del 1º de febrero de 1990, consideró que este principio ha de ser aplicado, no tan sólo (sic) cuando se produzca cualquier tipo de convicción psicológica en el particular beneficiado, sino más bien cuanto se basa en signos externos producidos por la Administración lo suficientemente concluyentes para que le induzcan razonablemente a confiar en la legalidad de la actuación administrativa, unido a que, dada la ponderación de intereses en juego interés individual e interés general- la revocación o dejación sin efectos del acto, hace crecer en el patrimonio del beneficiado que confió razonablemente en dicha situación administrativa, unos perjuicios que no tiene por qué soportar derivados de unos gastos o inversiones que solo pueden serle restituidos con graves perjuicios en su patrimonio. En cuanto a los requisitos del principio de confianza legítima, la doctrina española, siguiendo la jurisprudencia del Tribunal Supremo Español, ha establecido los siguientes: Debe mediar un acto 1) de la administración lo suficientemente concluyente para provocar en el afectado uno de los tres tipos siguientes de confianza: a) confianza del afectado en que la Administración Pública actúa correctamente; b) confianza del afectado en que es lícita la conducta que mantiene en su relación con la Administración Pública, al existir un eventual error de prohibición; c) confianza del afectado en que sus expectativas como interesado son razonables. 2) La Administración Pública debe provocar signos (actos o hechos) externos que, incluso, sin necesidad de ser jurídicamente vinculantes, orienten al administrado hacia una determinada conducta que de no ser por la apariencia de legalidad creada no hubiere efectuado. 3) Un acto de la Administración Pública (v. gr. un reglamento que reconoce o constituye una situación jurídica individualizada en cuya estabilidad confía el administrado. 4) La causa idónea para provocar la confianza legítima del afectado no puede provocarse por la mera negligencia, tolerancia, ignorancia de la Administración Pública o lo irracional de lo pretendido por el administrado. 5) El administrado debe cumplir los deberes y obligaciones que le competen. El quebranto del principio de la confianza legítima provoca, indudablemente, varios efectos jurídicos de importancia, veamos: 1) Actúa como límite al ejercicio de las potestades discrecionales. 2) Opera como una garantía del principio de igualdad. 3) Provoca el deber de la Administración pública de resarcir la frustración de las expectativas legítimas y los derechos subjetivos lesionados. El principio de la confianza legítima, junto con el de la buena fe en las relaciones jurídico-administrativas, dimana del principio de igualdad jurídica, esto es, la certidumbre de las relaciones con los poderes públicos, saber, el administrado, a qué atenerse con éstos (sic) , quienes deben evitar las situaciones objetivamente confusas y mantener las situaciones jurídicas aunque no sean absolutamente conformes con el ordenamiento jurídico. Este principio, se concreta, entre otros supuestos, con la teoría de la intangibilidad de los actos propios declarativos de derechos para el administrado, la limitación de los actos de gravamen y la irretroactividad. Encuentra aplicación, también, cuando una administración pública dicta y realiza una serie de actos y de actuaciones, que aunque jurídicamente incorrectas, generan una serie de expectativas en el administrado creyendo que ostenta una situación jurídica conforme con el ordenamiento jurídico (...)" (ver sentencia N° 2010-010171 de las 9:58 horas del 11 de junio de 2010).”. (Sentencia n.° 2016008000 de las 11:52 horas de 10 de junio de 2016).
En la especie, este Tribunal descarta que la jurisprudencia cuestionada desatienda el principio antedicho. Así, debe reiterarse que, con independencia de lo que se advierta registralmente, la propiedad integrada a una reserva indígena es intransmisible por disposición expresa de ley, de modo que no es posible recurrir a la buena fe registral o a una presunta confianza legítima para convalidar un acto negocial absolutamente nulo, efectuado en contravención al ordenamiento jurídico. Véase, una vez más, que la delimitación física de las reservas indígenas está establecida a través de distintos decretos ejecutivos, debidamente publicados; además, existe una prohibición legal expresa para que las personas no indígenas adquieran estas propiedades, por lo que los actos de traspaso son nulos. Por ello, la eventual omisión del Registro Público de consignar la afectación de reserva indígena sobre un inmueble de ninguna manera convalida algún acto traslativo de dominio efectuado al margen de la ley, ni constituye una causa idónea para que el adquirente de tal negocio nulo reclame una indemnización en los términos del ordinal 5 de la Ley Indígena, como pretende la parte recurrente.
Ahora, no está de más aclarar que la responsabilidad por la omisión del Registro Público de anotar los inmuebles que son parte de una reserva indígena en un caso concreto, así como la eventual responsabilidad que, como indica la Procuraduría, podría tener el vendedor de una propiedad bajo el régimen de reserva indígena, o la que el presidente de la Sala Primera de Casación aduce que podría tener el notario público que realiza un negocio jurídico en tales términos, no son propias de ser declaradas a través del proceso de control que efectúa esta Sala por medio de una acción de inconstitucionalidad, de ahí que tal tipo de pretensión deberá ventilarse en las vías ordinarias correspondientes.
Por último, el accionante alega que los criterios de la jurisprudencia impugnada vulneran el principio de responsabilidad patrimonial extracontractual del Estado por actividad jurisdiccional, recogido en los artículos 9, 11 y 41 de la Constitución Política, y que se desarrolla en los numerales 190 y 194 de la Ley General de la Administración Pública. Al respecto, esta Cámara comparte lo señalado por la Procuraduría General de la República, en el sentido de que una eventual responsabilidad estatal por actividad jurisdiccional (que lejos de significar un desacuerdo con un criterio jurisprudencial, implica la constatación de alguna irregularidad grave en el cumplimiento de las responsabilidades y competencias jurisdiccionales) no es posible conocerla ni determinarla a través de una acción de inconstitucionalidad, por lo que, de considerar que las instancias ordinarias han incurrido en algún supuesto de este tipo de responsabilidad administrativa, la parte accionante podrá acudir a las vías comunes correspondientes, si a bien lo tiene.
En virtud de lo expuesto, se declara sin lugar la acción de inconstitucionalidad.” Como corolario, este Tribunal, por mayoría, ya concluyó que la citada línea jurisprudencial no contraviene el Derecho de la Constitución y, por el contrario, resulta congruente con el especial régimen de propiedad indígena regulado en los artículos 1, 2, 3 y 5 de la Ley Indígena. Según se verificó, tal pauta jurisprudencial no desconoce o infringe los derechos fundamentales de las personas no indígenas que de buena fe ostentaban la titularidad de un inmueble de previo a que este se integrara al régimen de propiedad indígena, a quienes se les reconoce su derecho a la reubicación o a la expropiación e indemnización por la afectación sufrida. Por lo que debe remitirse nuevamente a lo señalado en el considerando anterior, sobre la posibilidad que tales personas puedan acudir a las instancias respectivas en la eventualidad que no se les hubiera reubicado o expropiado a la fecha.
Ahora, sustancialmente distinta es la situación respecto de las personas no indígenas que pretenden derivar derechos de negocios jurídicos posteriores a la constitución de la reserva indígena, pues -como ya se indicó el voto parcialmente transcrito- "(l)ógicamente, a partir de que se ha constituido una reserva indígena (mediante los decretos ejecutivos señalados en el artículo 1 de la propia Ley Indígena), carece de plausibilidad jurídica que una persona no indígena pueda adquirir válidamente una propiedad dentro de tal zona restringida, cuya delimitación física ya ha sido debidamente establecida y publicada a través de los decretos ejecutivos correspondientes. Semejante adquisición, como lo señala el ordinal 3 de la propia Ley Indígena, es absolutamente nula pues la propiedad ya era intransferible. Obsérvese que la reserva indígena y su debida delimitación espacial se constituye a partir del decreto ejecutivo correspondiente, no hasta el momento en que se da una eventual expropiación en los términos del ordinal 5 de la Ley Indígena, como sugiere el recurrente...". En cuyo caso, no existe motivo alguno que justifique variar el criterio ya vertido en tal ocasión.
Como corolario de lo anterior, procede rechazar por el fondo la acción interpuesta, como así se dispone pone. La magistrada Garro Vargas salva el voto y declara parcialmente con lugar la acción de inconstitucionalidad; en consecuencia, declara inconstitucional la línea jurisprudencial impugnada en cuanto asume, de manera genérica, la existencia de mala fe en la causa adquisitiva del negocio traslativo de dominio a partir, exclusivamente, de la vigencia del artículo 5 de la Ley Indígena y, por ello, de la nulidad originaria del negocio de traspaso, derivada de lo dispuesto en el citado artículo. La magistrada Garro Vargas consigna nota.
VI.VOTO SALVADO DE LA MAGISTRADA GARRO VARGAS EN CUANTO A LA LÍNEA JURISPRUDENCIAL DE LA SALA PRIMERA DE LA CORTE SUPREMA DE JUSTICIA.
La suscrita magistrada advierte que en el precedente citado como fundamento para la desestimatoria de la acción, respecto a la mencionada línea jurisprudencial de la Sala Primera de la Corte Suprema de Justicia, salvé el voto juntamente con el magistrado Garita. En dicho voto salvado se realizaron las siguientes consideraciones:
“VOTO SALVADO DE LA MAGISTRADA GARRO VARGAS Y DEL MAGISTRADO GARITA NAVARRO, CON REDACCIÓN DE ESTE SEGUNDO.
Con el respeto debido, disentimos de la postura de mayoría por las razones que de seguido se expresan. La Ley Indígena No. 6172, data s del año 1977, en tanto que la creación de la Reserva Indígena Guatuso se realizó mediante Decreto Ejecutivo No. 5904-G, publicado en el Alcance No. 60 a La Gaceta No. 70 del 10 de abril de 1976, y cuyos límites fueron estipulados por los numerales 1 y 2 del Decreto Ejecutivo No. 7962 del 15 de diciembre de 1977. El ordinal 5 de la Ley Indígena establece:
Artículo 5º.- En el caso de personas no indígenas que sean propietarias o poseedoras de buena fe dentro de las reservas indígenas, el ITCO deberá reubicarlas en otras tierras similares, si ellas lo desearen; si no fuere posible reubicarlas o ellas no aceptaren la reubicación, deberá expropiarlas e indemnizarlas conforme a los procedimientos establecidos en la Ley de Expropiaciones. (Así reformado por el artículo 65, inc. d) de la Ley Nº 7495 de 3 de mayo de 1995).
Los estudios y trámites de expropiación e indemnización serán efectuados por el ITCO encoordinación con la CONAI.
Si posteriormente hubiere invasión de personas no indígenas a las reservas, de inmediato las autoridades competentes deberán proceder a su desalojo, sin pago de indemnización alguna.
Las expropiaciones e indemnizaciones serán financiadas con el aporte de cien millones de colones en efectivo, que se consignarán mediante cuatro cuotas anuales de veinticinco millones de colones cada una, comenzando la primera en el año de 1979; dichas cuotas serán incluidas en los presupuestos generales de la República de los años 1979, 1980, 1981 y 1982. El fondo será administrado por la CONAI, bajo la supervisión de la Contraloría General de la República.
Es decir, esta norma fija requisitos impostergables de orden subjetivo, que determinan la procedencia del trámite indemnizatorio que en esa norma se establece, a saber:
El canon 3 ejusdem establece que los no indígenas no podrán alquilar, arrendar, comprar o de cualquier otra manera adquirir terrenos o fincas comprendidas dentro de estas reservas, es menester en cada caso analizar y ponderar si la adquisición de un inmueble en esas condiciones se realizó de buena o mala fe, para lo cual, habría que considerar, entre otros aspectos, si el bien se adquirió de un indígena, supuesto en el cual, se impondría una nulidad de pleno derecho por la posibilidad objetiva de conocer que la propiedad es indígena, o bien, que esos bienes contaban con rotulaciones o elementos materiales (visuales) que les identificaran como parte de reserva, tuvieran anotaciones registrales o estuvieran ocupados por indígenas o se realizaran dentro de esos predios, actividades por parte de esas comunidades. Empero, cuando se adquiere de un no indígena, es menester considerar si el adquirente estaba en posibilidad objetiva de conocer que el bien estaba afecto a este tipo de dominio especial, supuesto en el cual, las demarcaciones del terreno, así como las anotaciones registrales serían indicativos determinantes.
En ese sentido, la sola disposición de los límites de una reserva de esta índole mediante decreto ejecutivo no supone en modo alguno una suerte de deber de conocer la existencia de esas circunstancias de parte de terceros, quienes amparados en la publicidad registral inmobiliaria, y a la luz del ordinal 455 del Código Civil, adquieren bienes sobre los cuales, desde el plano registral no pesa, ni existe condición marginal alguna (directa o indirecta) que le advierta sobre la naturaleza de ese terreno. Precisamente, dentro de la lógica de la Ley No. 6172, el deber que se impone en el numeral 5 -en cuanto a la expropiación de los terrenos de no indígenas que se ubiquen dentro de esas reservas-, busca tutelar no solamente el derecho de las comunidades indígenas de que les restituyan los terrenos que constituían su ámbito geográfico de existencia, actividades y costumbres, sino además regular y delimitar la obligación asumida por el Estado de devolver a esas comunidades las tierras tradicionalmente ocupadas.
Tal compromiso se reconoce incluso de previo a la emisión de la Ley Indígena (1977), en concreto, en la Ley de Terrenos Baldíos de 1939, en el Convenio 107 de la OIT de 1959, norma que obligó al Estado a reconocer las tierras tradicionalmente ocupadas por los pueblos indígenas, regulaciones luego reforzadas por la citada Ley No. 6172 y el Convenio 169 de la OIT. Así, esa Ley Indígena obligaba al Estado, junto con el ITCO (ahora INDER y la CONAI) a iniciar los estudios poblacionales y trámites de expropiación para sustraer dicho dominio a no indígenas y retornarlo a los pueblos indígenas. El que se haya dispuesto la obligatoriedad de instruir un trámite expropiatorio, pone en evidencia que ese tratamiento busca una tutela dual, sea, el resguardo de la propiedad comunitaria indígena, de la que fueron desplazados por múltiples razones históricas y, por otro, sobre la base de la buena fe de esos propietarios actuales no indígenas, tutelar el derecho de dominio adquirido de buena fe, pues fue la propia inercia del Estado la que llevó a esos desplazamientos de propiedad, en múltiples casos, no inscripción registral de titularidad.
Ahora, bajo la certeza de que exista delimitación geográfica de la reserva y a la vez claridad para terceros no indígenas, que sus tierras forman parte de la reserva, por lo cual van a ser expropiadas, es que emerge la restricción que impone el ordinal 3 de la Ley Indígena, en cuanto estatuye que los no indígenas no podrán arrendar, adquirir u obtener de cualquier modo, derechos de disposición o uso sobre áreas de reserva indígena. Esto es así ya que, una vez puesta en disposición de los indígenas esas tierras, los no indígenas no pueden adquirirlas de ninguna manera, pues de otro modo se socavaría el fin mismo de la Ley y el deber de retornar la tierra a los pueblos indígenas. Incluso por esa misma razón se reconoce en esa norma (artículo 3), la nulidad de pleno derecho de los traspasos de indígenas a no indígenas, pues la lógica es evitar nuevamente la pérdida del derecho de propiedad de esas comunidades.
Por ende, en los casos como el presente en que pese a que la reserva se delimita desde 1977, la declaratoria no se acompaña de unas conductas ulteriores que lleven a reintegrar materialmente los terrenos a los indígenas, de suerte que se permita poner en posibilidad de conocimiento a terceros adquirentes de buena fe, no es correcto pretender desconocer los efectos de actos de traslado de dominio. Lo anterior puede darse por la ausencia del inicio de estudios, trámites expropiatorios, anotaciones registrales, demarcación de espacios, demarcación física, rotulaciones, notificaciones, etc., Así, en tanto no hubiera posibilidad objetiva de conocer que el área estaba en reserva indígena, no puede asumirse la mala fe, pues de otro modo, el Estado (en el concepto integral del art. 9 de la Carta Magna) evadiría la obligación que le impone el ordinal 5 de la Ley No. 6172.
A juicio de quienes suscriben este voto de minoría, la sanción de nulidad originaria que establece esa norma en cuestión no permite excluir, de manera general y automática, situaciones en las cuales, dadas las condiciones que se han presentado en la creación y disposición de esos terrenos, terceros ocupantes o adquirentes puedan llegar a acreditar una buena fe en el ejercicio de sus derechos. Es decir, la nulidad que se dispone legalmente en torno a los traspasos de dominio de tierras que formen parte de las citadas reservas indígenas, según la delimitación geográfica vigente a ese momento, sin duda, opera de pleno derecho, a partir de lo cual, es innegable que esas heredades deben pasar a dominio indígena, sin que puedan reservarse a dominio privado particular. Sin embargo, esa consecuencia legal no es óbice para que, frente a determinadas circunstancias, personas que haya adquirido situaciones jurídicas al amparo de una máxima de confianza legítima, y siempre que logren acreditar de manera debida y plena razones objetivas que pudiera llevar a colegir estados de ocupación o adquisición de buena fe, puedan emprender acciones indemnizatorias en contra de la Administración Pública por la desatención de las obligaciones que desde 1977 le impuso la Ley Indígena, en lo términos indicado supra.
Así, en esos casos de adquisición de buena fe por las condiciones dichas, al margen de que las tierras deban ponerse a disposición de la respectiva comunidad indígena, cabría cuestionarse si las Administraciones obligadas darían cabida a una solicitud de indemnización de parte del propietario original o si, por el contrario, negarían esa reparación bajo el alegato que hubo desplazamiento de propiedad. No se trata entonces de negar que esas tierras son parte de una reserva indígena, sino de lograr un equilibrio en la tutela de las situaciones jurídicas involucradas, que impone no solamente tutelar la propiedad indígena, sino además, tutelar el derecho de quien ha adquirido de buena fe por la circunstancia que la Administración se limitó a declarar vía decreto ejecutivo los límites de una reserva, sin el acompañamiento debido de acciones materiales que permitan el retorno efectivo de la tierra a los indígenas, y sin adoptar acciones concretas que generaran certeza jurídica a los terceros, sobre la indisponibilidad de esos bienes en el tráfico inmobiliario.
De otro modo, se permitiría que esas tierras no sean indemnizadas a los anteriores propietarios, quienes, en virtud de la declaratoria de régimen especial de propiedad mancomunada indígena, deben someterse a esa supresión de dominio, pero sin la obtención correspondiente de la reparación civil que manda la ley. Desde ese plano, el alegato de improcedencia de lo pretendido sobre la única referencia de haber adquirido registralmente en una fecha ulterior a la creación de la reserva, si bien es una postura respetada, en definitiva, se estima violatoria de los derechos regulados en los preceptos 9 y 45 de la Constitución Política, en la medida en que presupone, de manera genérica y abstracta, una mala fe en la causa adquisitiva, negando con ello potenciales indemnizaciones. Nótese que la indemnización prevista por el ordinal 5 de la Ley No. 6172 únicamente está vedada en los casos de titulares u ocupantes de mala fe.
De esa manera, con el respeto debido, se estima que no resulta viable partir de una premisa genérica, extensible a todo caso, al margen de sus particularidades y casuística, que las fincas hayan sido adquiridas bajo la clara noción de que formaban parte de patrimonio indígena. Bien pueden darse casos en los que esas heredades hayan sido adquiridas sin que tuvieran alguna anotación registral que advirtiera de la existencia de una imposibilidad jurídica de ser inscritas mediante causa adquisitiva de compra, mediante trámites de información posesoria. Por el contrario, en el ejemplo de una adquisición por la vía de proceso judicial de información posesoria hace presuponer un análisis en esa causa de la concurrencia de los diversos presupuestos que permiten la titulación por esos medios, como lo es, la ocupación pública, pacífica y de buena fe, de suerte que, de inicio, no sería legítimo desconocer simplemente el contenido y efecto esas resoluciones judiciales, y asumir mala fe en la causa adquisitiva. Si bien existen vías jurídicas para disponer su anulación, esa hipótesis no llevaría a presuponer, sí o sí, una mala fe de parte del ocupante o titular.
A la fecha, pese a que la Ley Indígena impone el deber al INDER y a la CONAI de realizar las delimitaciones y demarcaciones de las áreas que componen las diversas Reservas Indígenas en Costa Rica, realizar los censos poblacionales que le permitan definir y discriminar cuáles de los titulares u ocupantes de los terrenos dentro de esas áreas son indígenas o no indígenas de cara a proceder a concretar las expropiaciones o reubicaciones pertinentes, esas acciones no han sido concretadas. Desde ese plano, con el respeto de siempre, se disiente de la negación de un deber de expropiación o bien, en determinados supuestos, de una responsabilidad patrimonial de la Administración, producto de la inercia en el ejercicio de las acciones formales y materiales para garantizar la adquisición, reivindicación, protección y publicidad debida de esas tierras. Lo anterior ya que ello llevaría a negar la responsabilidad civil que estatuye el canon 9 de la Constitución Política, pese a la acreditación de una indolencia, sea, un funcionamiento anormal por omisión (disfunción) que, con alto grado de probabilidad, pudo haberse constituido como móvil adecuado a partir del cual, se colocó a terceros en posición de adquirir bienes, por confianza legítima, al amparo de la publicidad registral, produciendo un daño patrimonial tutelable.
Lo opuesto llevaría a cohonestar la adquisición forzosa de hecho e ilegítima de esas tierras, sin el reconocimiento compensatorio que, para efectos de la expropiación, fija no solamente el artículo 5 de la Ley Indígena, sino, además, el ordinal 45 párrafo inicial de la Carta Magna, norma que tutela el derecho de propiedad, el que solo puede suprimirse mediante el trámite expropiatorio, previa indemnización correspondiente. De ese modo, si el deber legal (y constitucional) del INDER es la expropiación de los terrenos que pasaron a formar parte de una determinada reserva indígena, y que son de dominio o posesión de buena fe de no indígenas, la falta de reclamo sobre la concreción de la expropiación no es óbice para la oponibilidad de las obligaciones atinentes a esos entes públicos, como garantía de tutela de la situación jurídica de esas personas no indígenas titulares de buena fe. Así, es menester un análisis particular de cada caso concreto, para discriminar si ha existido mala fe en la adquisición. Esta condición no se desprende, en automático, por la nulidad de base legal del negocio de traslado de dominio.
Finalmente, deseamos recalcar que es claro que los traspasos de tierras que se hayan suscrito después de la entrada en vigor de la Ley Indígena o bien, de la creación y delimitación de cada reserva indígena, son nulos, por imperativo legal. De igual manera, no cabría derecho de reclamo patrimonial alguno en los casos en que terceros no indígenas no pudieran acreditar buena fe en el ejercicio de su ocupación o adquisición. Para ello, es evidente que la sola ausencia de anotaciones registrales no determina la validez del negocio jurídico, ni la buena fe en la ocupación, ya que, si en cada caso, pese a esa publicidad registral, existen parámetros objetivos que permitan deducir la naturaleza jurídica de esos bienes, no concurriría esa condición reparatoria. Esto es igualmente aplicable para las demás actuaciones propias del respectivo tracto sucesivo. Ergo, estimamos que la línea jurisprudencial impugnada es congruente con el Derecho de la Constitución, en tanto se entienda que es aplicable a los casos en que, dentro de la respectiva causa judicial, no se haya establecido la concurrencia de buena fe en el negocio de adquisición de la heredad, aspecto que no se encuentra estrictamente supeditado a la calificación legal de nulidad originaria del negocio de traspaso, fijado por el citado numeral 5 de la Ley Indígena.
Así, es dentro de la casuística de cada proceso ordinario, que deberá definirse tal condición y ponderar la procedencia o no de eventuales reparaciones civiles, aspecto que, desde luego, escapa al control propio de esta jurisdicción. Empero, la aplicación genérica debatida impide la valoración de potencial aplicabilidad del régimen de responsabilidad por daños atinente a la Administración, se reitera, sustentada en el canon 9 de la Carta Fundamental.
Por tanto, la magistrada Garro Vargas y el magistrado Garita Navarro salvan el voto y declaran inconstitucional la línea jurisprudencial impugnada en cuanto asume, de manera genérica, la existencia de mala fe en la causa adquisitiva del negocio traslativo de dominio a partir, exclusivamente, de la vigencia del artículo 5 de la Ley Indígena y, por ello, de la nulidad originaria del negocio de traspaso, derivada de lo dispuesto en el citado artículo.”
Consigno esta nota para subrayar que para quienes suscribimos el referido voto salvado, sin duda, los negocios de traspaso de dominio a personas no indígenas son nulos después de la mencionada ley; pero de ahí no derivamos que incondicionalmente se ha configurado la mala fe en quien adquiere, sino que estimamos que deben examinarse otros elementos. Ciertamente muchos de estos fueron valorados en esas sentencias que se aportan. Sin embargo, lo que debe tenerse presente es que la nulidad del acto no es porque se dio mala fe, sino porque este se realizó después de la entrada en vigor de esa ley.
Se previene a las partes que de haber aportado algún documento en papel, así como objetos o pruebas contenidas en algún dispositivo adicional de carácter electrónico, informático, magnético, óptico, telemático o producido por nuevas tecnologías, estos deberán ser retirados del despacho en un plazo máximo de 30 días hábiles contados a partir de la notificación de esta sentencia. De lo contrario, será destruido todo aquel material que no sea retirado dentro de este plazo, según lo dispuesto en el "Reglamento sobre Expediente Electrónico ante el Poder Judicial", aprobado por la Corte Plena en sesión N° 27-11 del 22 de agosto del 2011, artículo XXVI y publicado en el Boletín Judicial número 19 del 26 de enero del 2012, así como en el acuerdo aprobado por el Consejo Superior del Poder Judicial, en la sesión N° 43-12 celebrada el 3 de mayo del 2012, artículo LXXXI.
Por tanto:
Se rechaza por el fondo la acción. La magistrada Garro Vargas salva parcialmente el voto y declara inconstitucional la línea jurisprudencial impugnada en cuanto asume, de manera genérica, la existencia de mala fe en la causa adquisitiva del negocio traslativo de dominio a partir, exclusivamente, de la vigencia del artículo 5 de la Ley Indígena y, por ello, de la nulidad originaria del negocio de traspaso, derivada de lo dispuesto en el citado artículo. La magistrada Garro Vargas consigna nota.
Fernando Castillo V.
Fernando Cruz C.
Paul Rueda L.
Luis Fdo. Salazar A.
Jorge Araya G.
Anamari Garro V.
Aracelly Pacheco S.
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