The established guidelines were based on the preparation of a document allowing for decision-making by the personnel of the Conservation Areas regarding permit applications to develop productive activities in the protective zones, forest reserves, and wildlife refuges. The scope of the work to be carried out was defined based on the available resources and time, with the purpose of obtaining products that serve as a technical instrument for the use and sustainable development of the protected areas included in this task. Coordination was established with the Conservation Areas to achieve their participation in the development of the environmental management plan. Support was coordinated from other institutions linked to the topic, such as INVU, ICE, and the National Emergency Commission (CNE), who provided technical support through the delivery of information and answering queries. In the case of the information provided by INVU, it was not included in the study because, despite being in digital format, it does not cover the entire country. Various territorial management studies were consulted, which allowed the work methodology to be adapted. (DGF, 1994; Abt et al, 1998); MIDEPLAN, 1999 It is worth mentioning that this study did not include the Guanacaste Conservation Area and Cocos Island, because they do not have ASP within the categories under study. In the information-gathering phase, the level of detail for the formulation of the POA was defined, considering the following: a. Description of 49 ASPs that are within the protective zones (30), forest reserves (11), and wildlife refuges (8), regarding the geo-biophysical environment, which considers: current use, altitude, climate, life zones, geology, geomorphology, hydrology, representative flora and fauna, among others. b. Description of the existing productive activities in each ASP, according to the project categories indicated in the Basic Guide appearing in Chapter V, section 5.1.2, subsection J, which were taken and adapted from the categories established by the World Bank. (World Bank, 1991) c. The information was provided by the conservation areas, contributed in georeferenced form. Also included were hydroelectric projects and transmission lines, peasant settlements, the base map (containing the water network, road network, and the main hamlets and towns), and the cantonal division. d. Specific issues of each protected area considered in the POA. e. This point corresponds to a description of the issues associated with productive activities; in addition, problems related to hunting, illegal extraction of flora, and squatting (precarismo) are mentioned. Three maps were produced for each protected wilderness area, namely: land-use conflict map, productive activities map, natural threats map. The information was taken from different sources as shown in the following table.
(Ver tabla en el Alcance 34 de la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
- Definition of criteria At the level of each conservation area: the management plan helps define which activities we will develop within it and on which lands, depending on the sustainable profitability of land use, population, resources, etc. Thus, this concept refers to the control that must be exercised over human activities occurring in a specific geographic sector. Therefore, the decision to authorize the development of activities that can be carried out in the study areas is governed by the criteria of: - The norms and regulations established for each activity (International Agreements, laws, decrees, regulations, and provisions, which require an environmental impact assessment (evaluación de impacto ambiental, EIA), the development of management plans, etc. (See tables No. 4 through 12) - Identification of natural threats.
This is the potential danger to which a territory is exposed due to the activity of a natural process that will produce harm or social catastrophe in an area. They are classified according to the type of agent that produces them (physical, biological, geological) and within each class, according to the principal activity and action: volcanoes, earthquakes, fluvial processes, landslides, etc. As indicated in the previous paragraph, natural phenomena are, for the most part, inevitable manifestations of the internal and surface activity of the planet. However, it is also clear that while accepting these phenomena as inevitable, one cannot overlook the fact that it is actually humans, their main victim, who, through their irrational activity, act as a catalyzing and magnifying element, causing them to become catastrophic. The natural threats map includes: landslides, floods, seismic risk, geological risk, and volcanic risk; on a base map.
- Land-use conflict (Conflicto de uso de la tierra) Land-use conflict (Conflicto de uso de la tierra) is defined as the problem that arises when the current land use diverges from its land-use capacity. The latter measures the soil's potential to support agricultural and forestry activities in the long term, where, if properly managed, its productive capacity is not reduced. The land-use capacity methodology was made official for the entire country in June 1994 under decree No. 23214 – MAG – MIRENEM. The land-use conflict map is a graphic representation of land use from 1996/1997, which was overlaid on the land-use capacity map. In order to compare the previously specified information layers, it was necessary to group and make compatible the use categories from both maps using the Geographic Information System. The biophysical analysis is carried out using the variables of current use and land-use capacity, which allow for the determination of use conflicts, through which it was possible to identify underutilized, overexploited, and severely overexploited areas, as well as those that are under correct or optimal use, providing a basis for defining areas that require a change of use or rezoning. The conflict classification rules used are known worldwide. With the previous grouping, the different use categories were determined, described in the table presented below:
(Ver tabla en el Alcance 34 de la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
Correct Use: Where land use coincides with land-use capacity. For example, annual agricultural activities on class I, II, and III capacity lands, as well as permanent crops on class IV, V, and VI capacity lands. Correct use was classified as:
Agriculture and Livestock: Lands dedicated to agricultural and livestock activities that fall within land-use capacity classes I, II, III, IV, V, and VI.
Forest management: Lands covered by forest and whose land-use capacity permits forest management (class VII).
Protection: Comprises those lands covered by forests whose land-use capacity is for protection (class VIII). According to current regulations, the change of use of these lands is not permitted.
Underuse (Subuso): Refers to those areas where their current use could support greater utilization, considering the type of productive activity, natural threats, hydrology, and in accordance with current legislation. Although underuse does not degrade the land-use capacity, current legislation does not permit its change of use (Articles 1 and 19 of the Forestry Law No. 7575).
Underuse 1 (Subuso 1): These are areas that are covered by forest and whose land-use capacity (I, II, III) can support more intensive productive activities, provided that current legislation is respected.
Underuse 2 (Subuso 2): These are lands where forest exists and whose land-use capacity (classes IV, V, and VI) could permit permanent crops, respecting the provisions of current legislation.
Overuse (Sobreuso): Corresponds to productive activities of greater intensity on soils that do not have the capacity to sustain them in the long term.
Overuse 1 (Sobreuso 1): Two possibilities arise: a) Areas dedicated to annual agricultural activities on lands with land-use capacity class IV, V, and VI, i.e., where permanent crops should exist. b) Areas where permanent crops exist on lands whose capacity is for forest management, category VII.
Overuse 2 (Sobreuso 2): Those lands on which annual crops have been established where their productive capacity only supports forest management (category VII).
Overuse 3 (Sobreuso 3): Two possibilities arise: a) When annual crop activities are developed on lands strictly for protection (class VIII). b) Those lands that, being for protection (class VIII), have been subjected to permanent crops.
Not defined: These are areas where, due to a lack of information, the conflict areas could not be determined, because land-use capacity or current use data was not available: due to cloud cover, cloud shadow, relief shadows, urban areas, and bodies of water. With the gathering of information and research, this class should be reduced.
Limitations In the development of this study, a series of information was identified that could not be included because it is incomplete, outdated, or non-existent. Regarding surface intakes and groundwater, a series of information was reviewed and consultations were made with the involved entities, but the existing information to date is incomplete for the entire country, and is also not in digital form, so it was not included in this study. Regarding geology, the available version for the entire country is outdated and superseded; despite this, it was updated as much as possible based on the information available from the POA Commission. Geology is an important aspect for determining the fragility of protected areas. The land-use capacity information used is not available for some ASPs, limiting its use, as is the enlargement to larger scales since it is at 1:200,000, a situation that limits the handling of the information. The information accompanying the different maps on the water network has limitations because it is based on geographic maps at a 1:200,000 scale. Those ASPs where natural threat maps were not presented is because the information does not exist.
CHARACTERIZATION OF THE PROTECTED WILDERNESS AREAS UNDER STUDY 2.1. GEO-BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT The need for a frame of reference to act as a basis for decision-making in the conservation areas related to natural resources, in addition to knowing the state of the wilderness areas as of 1999 regarding geo-biophysical aspects, determines this section. The geological, climatic, and geomorphological framework—semi-static variables—upon which each wilderness area has been established is characterized. Also included are the biological (flora and fauna), hydrological, and edaphic framework, components of the dynamic system, as a sample of the prevailing conditions at the end of the 20th century and which could contribute, for future generations of Costa Ricans, to the restoration of degraded areas. Degradation is mainly the result of human activities, but this does not exclude the activation of processes that accelerate, intensify, or threaten existing resources, particularly those of a catastrophic nature, due to their magnitude and the impossibility of prediction, such as terrain instability, including accelerated erosion, volcanism, seismicity, and flood risk. Added to the characterization for the 49 wilderness areas covered by this research is the state of land tenure, at the level of each conservation area, and a description of the productive activities taking place in each of them. This information is vital for estimating the threats of degradation looming over each wilderness area, thus allowing the estimation of the changes and effects expected to be identified in future research, similar to this one, through an analysis of the environmental issues occurring in each of the conservation areas. This analysis is derived from the cartographic information provided by the maps accompanying this research.
2.1.1. Central Volcanic Mountain Range Conservation Area La Selva Protective Zone.
Located 3 km south of Puerto Viejo de Sarapiquí, Heredia, it comprises an approximate area of 1,536 ha, where 66% is primary forest and the remainder comprises selectively harvested secondary forest, abandoned pastures, and reforested areas. The average altitude is 55 meters above sea level (msnm), with elevations ranging from 800 m (in the upper part of the Peje and Guácimo rivers) to 35 m in the lowest part of the protective zone. The life zone is tropical wet forest. There is no great climatic variation throughout the year; temperatures range between 19°C and 31°C. The climate is tropical wet, with an average annual precipitation of 4,000 mm. The rainiest months are June, July, November, and December, although it rains during almost the entire year. The period with the least precipitation is from February to April, and March is generally the driest month. It contains a large number of streams that are tributaries of the Puerto Viejo, Sarapiquí, Peje, and Guácimo rivers. Many of these have their origins at elevations of 150 to 500 m in the Braulio Carrillo National Park. In general, the streams in this protective zone are narrow and have rocky bottoms. Most of the terrain is formed by lava flows and mud flows; exceptions are the alluvial terraces near the Puerto Viejo, Sarapiquí, Peje, and Guácimo rivers. Diversity in this zone includes approximately more than 1,863 plant species, 350 tree species, 411 bird species, and 120 mammal species. Among the most representative and abundant tree species are gavilán (Pentaclethra macroloba), corozo palm, palmito amargo, and almendro (Dipteryx panamensis). Regarding fauna, the most frequent species are: howler monkey (Alouatta palliata), coati (Nasua narica), white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), paca (Agouti paca), agouti (Dasyprocta punctata), and bats, which are very representative.
b. Central Volcanic Mountain Range Forest Reserve It is located in the Central Volcanic Mountain Range and covers the surroundings of the Braulio Carrillo, Volcán Irazú, and Volcán Turrialba national parks. In the central sector, the altitude ranges from 2,000 m up to a maximum height of 3,266 meters above sea level (msnm). Regarding climate, the regime varies between the Atlantic Slope and the Pacific Slope due to the influence of winds, altitudinal variation, and the Paso La Palma depression. On the Pacific Slope, there is a well-defined dry and rainy season; December and April are transition months, and October is the rainiest month. Annual precipitation ranges between 2,000 and 7,000 mm, and the temperature varies between 5°C and 27°C. It presents great floristic complexity in terms of height and density, depending on the type of life zone, highlighting the following: Tropical wet forest, Premontane rain forest, Lower montane wet forest, Tropical wet forest transition to premontane. The forest species of greatest value are oak (Quercus sp.), almendro (Andira inermis), cristóbal (Platymiscium pinnatum), cedrelas, laurels such as Nectandra sp., Ocotea sp., Cinnamomum sp., and Persea sp. In addition, there is a large quantity of epiphytes (mosses, ferns, orchids, bromeliads). The fauna is very varied and rich, featuring species such as puma (Puma concolor), jaguar (Panthera onca), and the quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno). Geologically, the Quaternary volcanism of the Central Volcanic Mountain Range predominates. There are hills and mounds with slopes exceeding 50%; a radial drainage pattern develops locally, formed by volcanic rocks and slopes dissected by cooling fractures. The soils are stony and weakly weathered at shallow depths, due to the natural erosion of ash and pyroclastic deposits on the steep upper parts; in the less steep parts, the soils are deeper and free of stones. It is a buffer zone and protection area for one of the country's most important national parks, Braulio Carrillo, with great ecological potential. It presents a hydrological network of great value and high water resource potential for the country. This reserve and Braulio Carrillo National Park constitute the main recharge area that feeds the principal aquifers and rivers providing drinking water to the Central Valley and those draining toward the plains of the northern Atlantic region. Among the main rivers are Toro Amarillo, Puerto Viejo, Segundo, Sucio, General, and Tibás. Administratively, the eastern sector is located northeast and northwest of the canton of Turrialba, bordering the cantons of Siquirres and Guácimo to the east, and the canton of Pococí to the south. It comprises a strip of land difficult to penetrate from both the south and the north. There is an influence of colonization from the district of Santa Cruz de Turrialba, and also from the district of Tierras Morenas de Guácimo and from the populations of La Picada and San Valentín de Guápiles. In the Guácimo sector, hamlets such as El Destierro and La Roca have developed, and through Santa Cruz, the hamlet of Bajos de Bonilla, which have great influence on the forest reserve. In this sector, the life zones present are: Premontane rain forest, Lower montane rain forest, and Subalpine forest. It receives the influence of the Caribbean climate, so the precipitation distribution is characteristic of the Atlantic zone. Temperature varies according to altitudinal levels, from an average of 15°C at altitudes above 2,000 m down to 22°C at altitudes near 800 m. The present hydrological pattern corresponds to the natural drainages forming the upper basin; it comprises the Toro Amarillo, Guácimo, Dos Novillos, and Destierro rivers, which drain towards the northeast Atlantic slope, and the Bonilla and Roca rivers, which drain towards the Reventazón River in the southern sector of the forest reserve. The fauna is very varied and is represented by high-altitude birds, among which hummingbirds, quetzals, owls, and the jilguero stand out. Regarding mammals, there is evidence of the presence of jaguar, white-lipped peccaries, spider monkeys, coyotes, margays, armadillos, coatis, tayras, ocelots, brocket deer, and tapirs in the Bajos del Guácimo sector. In the upper parts of the mountain range, oak, encino, jaul, campano, and cedro dulce trees stand out, and in the lower parts, pilón, chancho, and fruta dorada, among others. In the western sector, the geomorphology is characterized by slope variation; it presents two well-defined geomorphic units: the Barba Volcano, whose unit has a steeper slope, and the volcanic filling of the Central Valley, characterized by a flat-to-undulating relief. The vegetation mostly consists of an evergreen forest of great floristic diversity and complexity. The forests of greatest height and species richness are found in the lowest parts; in the highest and steepest parts, the trees are low and deformed, and the number of species is lower. For the most part, the forest type is secondary with some patches of primary forest; these forests in some sectors have been altered by pastures for dairy farming, with some crops, and plantations of jaúl and cypress. Among the most common vegetation are higuerón (Ficus sp), aceituno (Simarouba amara), botarrama (Vochysia ferruginea), alcanfor (Protium glabrum), canfín (Tetragastris panamensis), cedro macho (Carapa guianensis), chancho blanco (Vochysia guatemalensis), fruta dorada (Virola sp), mangle de montaña (Bravaisia integerrima); it should be noted that palms, bromeliads, and sombrillas de pobre also abound. In this sector, the life zones present are: Premontane wet forest and Lower montane wet forest. Regarding hydrology, the basins of the Segundo, Bermúdez, Tibás, and Ciruelas rivers are found, which deposit their waters into the Grande de Tárcoles river basin. Among the most common animals are squirrel, rabbit, coyote, two-toed and three-toed sloths, tapir, puma, agouti, tayra, weasel, armadillo, bats, skunk, puma, jaguar, and ostoche, among others.
c. Grecia Forest Reserve Located 14 km northwest of the city of Grecia, Alajuela. Precipitation ranges between 3,500 and 4,000 mm per year. The driest months are January, February, and March; the average temperature is 12°C. Two types of life zones are located in the area: Premontane wet forest and Montane wet forest. The flora is abundant; 75% of the area is primary forest. Among the most outstanding species are: lorito (Weinmannia pinnata), ron ron (Astronium graveolens), oak (Quercus sp), ciprecillos (Podocarpus sp), quizarrá amarillo (Ocotea sp), and cedars. The fauna mainly includes the quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno), jilgueros (Myadestes melanops), several species of hummingbirds, emerald toucanet (Aulacorhynchus prasinus), among others. Among mammals, we have some feline species, brocket deer (Mazama americana), kinkajou (Potus flavus), and coyotes (Canis latrans). Its parent material is of volcanic origin, belonging to the Andesitas Poás formation; its topography is very irregular and steep. The soils are deep with a lot of organic matter, originating from volcanic ash and sand. There are a series of springs (nacientes) that give rise to the Prendas, Rosales, Vigía, and Achiote rivers, from which, downstream, part of their waters are used for agricultural and livestock purposes and a significant amount for human consumption. Furthermore, it could be mentioned that the reserve is the aquifer recharge area, where the important springs (nacientes) of the city of Grecia are supplied, such as El Patal, Amelia, and Los Angeles, which meet the community's drinking water needs.
d. Bosque Alegre Wildlife Refuge Located in Cariblanco, San Miguel de Sarapiquí, Alajuela. The precipitation in this area is approximately 4,600 mm per year. The average annual temperature is 25°C. The life zone of this region is Tropical wet forest. The site features very varied flora, among which can be mentioned cedro (Cedrela odorata), botarrama (Vochysia ferruginea), campano (Gordonia fruticosa), fruta dorada (Virola sp), and gavilán (Pentaclethra macroloba). Various types of birds can be observed in the area, such as: gallina de monte, king vulture, gavilán enano, three-wattled bellbird, great green macaw, and others; as well as mammals such as the howler monkey and white-faced capuchin, among others. The soils are of deep volcanic origin and are characterized by the presence of broken relief, with narrow valleys, narrow and rounded summits and mounds. The slopes are very steep, exceeding 50%. They have a good organic matter content, but due to climate and topographical conditions, they are very susceptible to erosion and need to maintain dense vegetation cover (cobertura boscosa) to serve as protection. Among the important rivers in the area are the Hule, Tercero, and the Quebrada Lapas; in addition to the Lagoons (Hule, Congo, and Bosque Alegre).
e. Río Tuis Protective Zone This area is located to the southeast of the city of Turrialba, specifically in the district of La Suiza and to the south of the population centers of Tuis and La Suiza. The altitudinal difference ranges between 850 masl and 1,963 masl, the average precipitation is 3,160 mm with extreme values of 2,500 mm in the lower part (800 masl) to more than 5,000 mm in the upper part. The average temperature in the lower zone is 22°C, while in the upper zone, such as the Altos del Río Tuis, the average is 15°C.
With respect to geomorphology, three physiographic conditions are located: A) Zone of undulating relief, located between elevations of 700 and 1,000 masl and with slopes between 12 and 32%. B) Zones of mountainous relief, at different altitudes and parts of the basin with slopes between 32 and 50%. C) Zones of steep relief, with slopes greater than 50% distributed in various sectors of the basin.
The main drainage system is constituted by the Tuis River, which has produced floods with a frequency of 20 to 21 years, agreeing with the estimation of the return period of large storms on the Atlantic slope.
The majority of the soils developed in the area belong to the Ultisols order, with susceptibility to erosion, observing problems in perennial crops located on high-slope terrain. Landslides (bombas de agua) have also been reported in hillside pastures, and in general, soil compaction problems due to overgrazing.
In the forest, two life zones stand out: the Premontane Rain Forest, finding species such as cedars (cedros) and laurel (laurel), and going up towards the upper basin in the transition to the Lower Montane Forest, species such as fruta dorada, pilón, chancho are found, and in the upper part towards the Montane Forest, the presence of campano, ira rosa, quizarrá, cedro dulce, and oak (robles) trees, etc., is observed.
Among the fauna, species such as the tapir (danta), paca (tepezcuintle), kinkajou (martillas), and coatis (pizotes) are found. Furthermore, in recent years, several specimens of jaguar have appeared, which descend to the pastures in search of cattle.
This wild area serves as a peripheral support point toward the Río Macho Forest Reserve, therefore forming the continuation of the forest cover (cobertura boscosa) toward the Talamanca Mountain Range.
The greatest presence of forests in the basin is located in its southern part and covers more than 75%. Among the forest types, the Premontane and Lower Montane Forest, intervened forest, and secondary forest predominate. Pastures created by farmers are also located, covering approximately 300 hectares.
f. Río Toro Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Río Toro) It is located in Bajos de Toro, Valverde Vega, Alajuela. The average precipitation is 4,000 mm, with the driest months being February and March. The average temperature is 10°C.
In the area, two types of life zones are located: Very Humid Premontane Forest and Humid Montane Forest.
The flora is abundant, approximately 80% of the area is primary forest, with the most outstanding species being oaks (Quercus sp), cipresillos (Podocarpus sp), and quizarrá amarillo (Ocotea sp).
Within the fauna, birds of the Trogonidae family stand out, such as the quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno), black-faced solitaires (jilgueros, Myadestes melanops), hummingbirds of various species, emerald toucanet (tucancillo verde, Aulacorhynchus prasinus), and among others. In addition, mammals such as felines, kinkajous (martillas, Potos flavus), and coyotes (Canis latrans) are found.
The origin of its terrain is of volcanic type, its topography is very irregular and pronounced. The soils are deep with much organic matter, originating from volcanic ash and sands.
The area is traversed by a series of rivers such as: El Toro, Gorrión, Trojas, Anonos, and Desagüe, which are used downstream by the Toro I and Toro II hydroelectric projects.
g. Cerros de La Carpintera Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Cerros de La Carpintera) It is located in San Diego de Tres Ríos, Cartago. The altitude is 1,822 masl, with an average annual precipitation between 1,812 mm and 2,732 mm. The average maximum temperature is 22.9ºC; and the average minimum temperature ranges between 10.9ºC and 14.2ºC.
Among the life zones present are: Humid and Very Humid Tropical Premontane Forest and Very Humid Tropical Lower Montane Forest.
It comprises two geological sectors, which are the La Carpintera massif and the adjacent zones. In the massif, there are 2 origins: igneous and sedimentary.
It presents three slope categories varying from 15% to 60%. The areas with slopes between 45% and 60% determine the drainage network and are located properly in the Cerros de la Carpintera. The areas with slopes between 15% and 30% are classified as rugged and are located toward the northern sector of the zone, and the terrain with slopes between 30% and 45%, very rugged terrain, is located toward the southwestern part of the protective zone. (Van Ginnaken and Calderón, 1978).
The other geological sector is formed by the Blanco and Patarrá hills; and the zones of Quebrada Honda, Coris, and the North zone of the Tiribí River. The lithostratigraphic formations found are: Térraba, San Miguel, Coris, and alluviums (fluvio-lacustrine valley of Cartago).
4 large groups of soils are found: A) Inceptisols (occupy 80% of the region's surface), B) Alfisols, C) Ultisols, and D) Vertisols.
In La Carpintera, some 30 streams (quebradas) originate, both intermittent and perennial, highlighting the Fierro and Carpintera streams, all of which are tributaries of the Tiribí River.
It is worth mentioning that the terrain has areas with scattered trees and some small forest complexes, such as scrublands (charrales) that have formed from the abandonment of pastures.
The type of vegetation is very varied; some species that can be found are: Piper carpinteranum, Peperomia carpinterana, Ilex spp.; Pleurothalis carpinterae; other tree species are Quercus associated with Lauraceae (Nectandra salicifollia and Persea schiedeana), Meliaceae (Cedrela sp), Euphorbiaceae (Sapium pittieri), Rutaceae (Zanthoxylum sp), and Juglandaceae (Oreomunnea sp. and Alfaroa sp.).
Among the shrubs and medium-sized trees we find: Croton sp., Citharexylum sp, Montanoa sp., Myrcia sp, Calyptranthes sp, Eugenia valeriana, Psidium guajava, Eugenia jambos, Urera sp., Myriocarpa sp., Hedyosmun sp., various species of palms, Malvaviscus sp., and Robinsonella sp., epiphytes, and ferns.
Because there are few forested areas in the region, the diversity and quantity of wildlife is very limited. The transformation of habitats has given rise to anthropic fauna such as the coyote. In very reduced and heavily altered areas, important habitats for birdlife still remain, such as the Coris lagoon. 204 species of birds distributed in 40 families have been reported. According to field surveys and interviews, it can be said that there are rabbits, red squirrels, common opossum (zorro pelón), skunk (zorro hediondo), coatis (pizotes), weasel, armadillo, pocket gopher (taltuza), spiny rat and house rat, raccoon, and sloth.
Among the birds we find clay-colored thrushes (yigüirros), bobos, parakeets, yellow-breasted chat (pecho amarillo), agüio, migratory hawks, hummingbirds, woodpeckers, come maíz, purple and collared doves, tijos, and caciques. Among the reptiles, false coral snake, sabanera coral snake, lora, bejuquilla, mica, and lizards.
La Carpintera and adjacent hills serve as an ecological bridge between the Talamanca Mountain Range and the Central Mountain Range; this is important for some species that carry out altitudinal migrations.
h. Tiribí Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Tiribí) It is located between the cantons of Goicoechea, Tres Ríos, and Cartago. The maximum height is 1,700 masl. The average annual temperature is 18ºC and the annual precipitation is 2,658 mm.
The life zone present is the Very Humid Lower Montane Forest.
It is formed by 3 types of geological material: volcanic edifices, ash and ignimbrites, and the Lavina formation.
The terrains present slopes that vary from 30% to 60%, which qualifies them as terrain with very rugged and broken topography (See Ginnaken and Calderón, 1978).
Among the flora are: jaúl (Alnus acuminata), yos (Sapium spp.), cypress (ciprés, Cupressus lusitanica), and poró (Erythrina spp.).
The most common species of fauna are: common opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), rabbit (Sylvilagus spp), squirrel (Sciurus spp), armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), porcupine (Coendou mexicanus), clay-colored thrushes (Turdus grayi), black-faced solitaire (Myadestes melanops), lesser goldfinch (mozotillo, Carduelis psaltria).
In the area, streams (quebradas) of great importance for the surrounding communities are protected, such as: Pizote, Juan María, Concepción, Salitrillo, Pato Azul, Naranjo, and Granadilla.
The existing forests correspond to primary forests; there are areas of plantations with species of jaúl, cypress (ciprés), and bitter cedar (cedro amargo), mainly on the Los Lotes farm, property of the Municipality of La Unión.
i. Cerros de Atenas Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Cerros de Atenas) It is located in the province of Alajuela, canton of Atenas, comprising the upper parts southwest of the district of Atenas and Escobal. Several private roads exist, and in front of the area passes the highway leading to Orotina.
The average annual precipitation is approximately 1,750 mm, with an average annual temperature of 23°C. The life zone present is Humid Premontane Forest.
Most of the area is highly altered, with pastures (extensive cattle ranching) and crops, mainly coffee and sugarcane, predominating.
In the sectors of steep slope and higher elevation, there are small forest "patches" (manchas), where tree species such as: espavel (Anacardium excelsum), cedar (cedro, Cedrela sp), laurel (laurel, Cordia alliodora), and guapinol (Hymenaea courbaril) stand out. The fauna is very scarce; the most common species are: squirrel (Microsciurus sp.), armadillo (Dasypus sp.), and paca (tepezcuintle, Agouti paca).
It forms part of the geomorphological unit "Cerros y Valles del Aguacate," characterized by the presence of hills and hillocks with strong slopes, greater than 30%, of volcanic origin composed of andesitic type rocks and andesitic basalts. The soils are shallow and poorly developed, with slow drainage, very prone to erosion.
Several streams (quebradas) originate in the area, which are used to meet the needs of human, agricultural, and livestock consumption; some of these are: Nance, Cedro, Vega, Limón, Lapas, and Tigre. Due to deforestation and soil misuse, the quality and quantity of the water resource is low.
j. El Chayote Protective Zone (Zona Protectora El Chayote) It is located 8 km southeast of Zarcero, Alfaro Ruiz, Alajuela. The area presents 2 climatic regimes: A) The area near the town of Naranjo presents a well-defined dry season and rainy season; B) The area near Palmira (Zarcero) belongs to the monsoonal regime, with rains throughout the year. In the area, precipitation records range between 2,000 mm and 2,400 mm annually, and temperatures between 15°C and 17.5°C are recorded.
The life zones found are: Very Humid Lower Montane Forest and Lower Montane Rain Forest.
The area has little second-growth forest cover, finding species such as lloró (Cornus disciflora), targuá (Croton sp), cedar (cedro, Cedrela tonduzii), oak (roble, Quercus sp), and poró (Erytrhina sp), among others.
The fauna is varied and rich, favored by the climatic conditions; thus we have brown jay (urraca parda, Psilorhinus morio), woodpecker (Melanopses sp), black-faced solitaire (Myadestes melanops), coati (pizote, Nasua narica), opossum (zarigüeya, Didelphis marsupialis), and raccoon (mapachín, Procyon lotor), among others.
The area is of volcanic origin and is characterized by presenting strong slopes and a great variety of rocks, with andesitic rocks standing out.
The soils are poor, derived from volcanic ash, deep with good drainage, porous, and acidic, unsuitable for intensive tillage given the strong slopes.
Several rivers originate in the area, such as the Espino, Isla, Cócora, Barranca, and Toro Amarillo. It is a water infiltration zone. It has potential as a source of drinking water supply and for the development of hydroelectric projects for the cantons of Alfaro Ruiz, Valverde Vega, and San Carlos.
k. Río Grande Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Río Grande) It is located in the province of Alajuela, and comprises part of the cantons of Palmares, Atenas, and Naranjo.
The annual precipitation is 1,750 mm, with an average annual temperature of 23.5°C. This area is found in the Humid Premontane Forest life zone.
The lands are mostly occupied by crops of coffee, sugarcane, caña india, pastures, and to a lesser extent, annual crops.
The only arboreal vegetation of high strata is found in the protection zones of the streams (quebradas), with espavel (Anacardium excelsum), chaperno (Lonchocarpus sp.), nance (Byrsonima crassifolia), guanacaste (Entherolobium cyclocarpum), and guapinol (Hymenaea courbaril) standing out.
The fauna is extremely scarce, being an altered area without forest cover; squirrels (Microsciurus sp), common opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), kinkajou (martilla, Potos flavus), and rabbits (Sylvilagus sp.) are rarely observed.
Its geomorphological form has a volcanic origin, framing itself in the Cerros y Valles del Aguacate unit, which is characterized by a very steep relief with slopes greater than 30%, andesitic rocks, and andesitic basalts.
This area presents three types of soils: A) The predominant one is Ustic Humitropept, dark and deep, which remains dry for more than 90 days. B) Lithic Ustorthent, shallow with little development. C) Typic Dystrandept, deep soil with organic matter, well-drained, dark, low in bases, and derived from volcanic ash.
2.1.2. Arenal Tilarán Conservation Area (Área de Conservación Arenal Tilarán) a. Miravalles Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Miravalles) It is located between the province of Guanacaste, districts of Fortuna and Aguas Claras of Bagaces, and the province of Alajuela, district of Bijagua of Upala.
Regarding geology, the area is constituted by recent volcanic rocks that form the volcanic edifice. Toward the foot of the volcano, there is volcanic activity of the sulfataric type known as "Las Hornillas." The protected area comprises the volcanic edifice of the Miravalles Volcano; it has a maximum altitude of 2,028 masl, of strongly steep terrain, where the climatic conditions are characterized by being influenced both by the particularity of the Caribbean Slope and the Pacific Slope. The north and east flank presents greater rainfall and humidity than the west flank, a product of the influence of the trade winds coming from the northeast, which blow almost permanently throughout the year.
It presents an altitudinal range from 300 to 2,028 masl; this altitudinal variation contributes to the existence of several life zones (Tosi, 1969): the Very Humid Premontane Forest, the Lower Montane Rain Forest, the Premontane Rain Forest, in addition to the transitions of the Very Humid Tropical Forest and the Humid Tropical Forest.
The land-use conditions comprise an important block of tall dense forest, low dense forest, followed by small areas of pasture and pasture with trees; and annual and permanent crops.
This area is distinguished by presenting great biodiversity, where the fauna and flora is very abundant and varied. Among the representative fauna species are the puma (Puma concolor), the jaguarundi (león breñero, Herpoilurus yaguaroundi), the tapir (danta, Tapirus bairdii), white-lipped peccaries (sahínos, Tayassu pecari), red brocket deer (cabro, Mazama americana), great curassow (pavón, Crax rubra), among others, and of the flora, oaks (Quercus sp), Lauraceae (Ocotea sp, Nectandra sp, and Cinnamomum sp), Meliaceae (Cedrela sp, Swietenia sp), pilón (Hyeronima alchorneoides), campano (Gordonia fruticosa), maría (Calophyllum brasiliense), among others, predominate.
The water resource is extremely important because a large number of rivers originate in the area, where Guacalillo, Zapote, Tenorio, Giganta, and Raudales stand out, among others. The water resource is used for human consumption, hydroelectric energy, and in the lower basin mainly for agricultural irrigation and river navigation.
b. Tenorio Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Tenorio) It is located between the districts of Tierras Morenas and Arenal of Tilarán, Cañas, and Cote of Guatuso.
It extends from 700 masl to 1,200 masl, on Masís hill. Geologically, it is formed by recent volcanic origin formations, constituted by lavas and pyroclastic rocks belonging to the Tenorio volcanic edifice. The geomorphology is of an undulating to steep landscape, with the presence of long hillsides. It also presents several lagoons of volcanic origin, highlighting Lago Cote, the result of volcanic-tectonic and erosive action that occurred in the region. The climatic conditions are typical of the influence of the Caribbean Slope, where the rainfall regime is quite copious, and the average annual precipitation oscillates between 2,800 and 3,400 mm.
It presents life zones corresponding to Very Humid Tropical Forest, Very Humid Premontane Forest, and Premontane Rain Forest, characterized by a high degree of biological biodiversity, where flora species are represented by species of campano (Gordonia fruticosa), níspero (Manilkara zapota), fruta dorada (Virola spp), cedro maría (Cedrela odorata), zapotillo (Pouteria spp.), quizarrá (Ocotea sp.), among others. The fauna is very rich and abundant, with species of jaguar, gray fox (zorro gris, Urocyon cinereoargenteus), jaguarundi (león breñero), tapir (danta, Tapirus bairdii), red brocket deer (cabro de monte, Mazama americana), white-lipped peccary (sahíno, Tayassu pecari), ocelot (manigordo, Leopardus pardalis), white-tailed deer (venado, Odocoileus virginianus), among others, predominating.
The current use is made up of important blocks of tall dense forest, followed by regenerated forest, pasture with trees, and small agricultural areas.
Currently, within the protective zone and in the surroundings, the Tenorio Geothermal Project, carried out by ICE, is under investigation.
c. Arenal - Monteverde Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Arenal - Monteverde) It is located in the districts of Angeles and Peñas Blancas of San Ramón, Tronadora and Quebrada Grande of Tilarán; Monteverde, Guacimal, and Pitahaya of Puntarenas; Fortuna and Tigra of San Carlos. The current category is constituted by two blocks separated by the Arenal Volcano National Park, where the main block is constituted by the area called Bosque Eterno de los Niños and the Cloud Forest (Bosque Nuboso).
Said area is formed by a mountain range that goes from 300 to 1,700 masl, constituted by rocks of volcanic origin, with a relief that varies from flat undulating to steep.
The area presents the following life zones: Premontane Rain Forest, Lower Montane Rain Forest, and Very Humid Premontane Forest. These conditions mean that this area presents characteristics typical of the cloud forest. The land use is mainly constituted by large blocks of dense forest areas, followed by small areas dedicated to cattle ranching.
Regarding the biodiversity of the area, it is very abundant and varied; proof of this is that 20% of the country's flora is represented in this area.
Among the flora species that predominate are cedars (Cedrela spp.), oaks (Quercus sp), lechoso (Brosimun utile), cachimbo (Lecythis costaricensis), campano (Lapacea semiserrata), in addition to a great variety of epiphytes as well as endemic plants such as Styphnolobium monteviridis (monteverde), among others.
The fauna is made up of a great diversity of species where the gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), puma (Puma concolor), jaguar (Panthera onca), tapir (danta, Tapirus bairdii), white-lipped peccary (sahíno, Tayassu pecari), white-faced monkey (mono carablanca, Cebus capucinus), paca (tepezcluintle, Agouti paca), white-tailed deer (venado, Odocoileus virginianus), ocelot (manigordo, Leopardus felis), margay (caucel, Leopardus weidi), jaguarundi (león breñero, Herpailurus yaguaroundi), red brocket deer (cabro, Mazama americana), venado (Odocoileus virginianus), great curassow (pavón, Crax rubra), king vulture (rey de zopilotes, Sarcoramphus papa), umbrellabird (pájaro sombrilla, Cephalopterus glabricollis), quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno), three-wattled bellbird (pájaro campana, Procnias tricarrunculata), toucan (tucán, Ramphastus sulfuratus), and as endemic, two species of hummingbirds (Elvira cupreiceps and Panterpe insignis) predominate.
d. Volcán Arenal Emergency Zone Forest Reserve (Reserva Forestal Zona de Emergencia Volcán Arenal) It is located within the district of Fortuna in San Carlos. It comprises the north and northeast slope of the Arenal volcano edifice, of Quaternary age, characterized by having volcanic formations constituted by lavas, pyroclastic rocks, and small lahars, of mainly andesitic composition and to a lesser degree basalts.
The current use is made up of forests, pastures, and rocks (lava flows). The flora and fauna are varied and abundant; many of these species form part of the great biodiversity that the Arenal Volcano National Park possesses. Among the flora are cedar (cedro, Cedrela spp), lechoso (Brosimun utile), campano (Gordonia fruticosa or G. brandegei), fruta dorada (Virola spp), cedro maría (Calophyllum brasiliense), and pilón (Hyeronyma alchorneoides); in addition to epiphytes and bromeliads, with Pitcairnia funckiae standing out, which is an endemic species. The fauna is scarce; the coati (pizote), great curassow (pavón, Crax rubra), kinkajou (martilla, Potos flavus), and toucans (Ramphastus sulfuratus) are found.
2.1.3. Arenal Huetar Norte Conservation Area (Área de Conservación Arenal Huetar Norte) a. Caño Negro National Wildlife Refuge (Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Caño Negro) Due to its special wetland conditions, its floristic composition is mainly determined by the edaphic conditions of the site and by the prevailing climatic characteristics of the area, especially by factors such as temperature and precipitation.
There is lacustrine vegetation such as floating plants of the genus Nymphaea, Pistia, and ferns (Salvinia sp). There is also gamalote grass (Paspalum repens), Eragrostis hipnoides, and Panicum spp., altamisa (Ambrosia cumanensisis). In the surroundings of the lagoon, the dominant species are poponjoche (Pachira acuatica) and guaba (Inga sp).
Regarding riparian vegetation, the most common are sotacaballo (Zygia longifolia), ceiba (Ceiba pentandra), savanna oak (roble de sabana, Tabebuia rosea), saragundí (Cassia reticulata), cannonball tree (bala de cañón, Couroupita nicaraguensis), guácimo colorado (Luehea seemannii), and cedro macho (Carapa guianensis). The palustrine vegetation covers most of the vegetation, determined largely by the edaphic characteristics and the water dynamics in these soils, which limit the growth of some species.
Within this last category are included those types of associations where certain species predominate, as in the case of the cativales, yolillales, and marillales, ecosystems of great importance. Also found are caobilla (Carapa guianensis) and cerillo (Symphonia globulifera).
On the higher ground, one can observe corteza amarilla (Tabebuia ochracea), poró (Erythrina fusca), guaba (Inga edulis), pilón (Hyeronima alchorneoides), guayacán (Tabebuia guayacan), botarrama (Vochysia ferruginea), among others.
It is located at an average height of 45 masl, has an extension of 9,969 ha, of which some 800 ha are covered by a seasonal lagoon 8 m deep in the rainy season and 3 m during the dry season.
The climate is rainy tropical; it has a short dry season (February to April) and a rainy season (May to February), with an average annual precipitation of 3,500 mm, with the rainiest months being July, August, October, and November. The least rainy months are February and March. The average annual temperature is 26°C, and the average relative humidity is 90%.
Most of its rocks belong to the Quaternary period, and an isolated sector to the Tertiary period. Geological structures of alluviums and extensive laharic deposits dominate. It is an area covered by Quaternary alluviums, composed mainly of andesitic blocks and, in some cases, of tuffaceous materials.
The topography of the region comprises a wide sedimentary plain with poor natural drainage. The majority of the region presents very poorly drained alluvial soils, and excessively drained soils are found in the riverbeds. Additionally, poorly drained organic soils are located.
It is under the influence of the Frío and Zapote rivers, which are characterized as binational basins that form part of the San Juan River basin. The Frío River basin covers an area of 1,554 ha. 25% of the total area of the Frío River is at a level above 100 masl, while the rest is characterized by having an altitude below 100 masl. The main tributaries of the Frío River are: El Sabogal, Caño Ciego, Purgatorio, Pataste, La Muerte, Venado, Mónico, Buenavista, Cote, and El Sol.
The dynamics presented by the water system directly influence the abundance and distribution of fish species existing in the area. There are at least 11 families of fish with 24 species, where in terms of biomass, the tarpon (sábalo real, Tarpon atlanticus), gaspar (Atractosteus tropicus), mojarras (Cichlasoma centrarchus), and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) play an important role.
The birdlife is one of the most diverse and important groups in the area. Among the resident species are the cormorant (Phalacrocorax olivaceus), the kingfisher of which all species reported for the country are found, the most common being (Ceryle torquata), the anhinga (pato aguja, Anhinga anhinga), tiger heron (garza tigre, Tigrisoma lineatum), and the boat-billed heron (pico cuchara, Cochlearius cochlearius). Within the migratory birdlife is the jabiru (galán sin ventura, Jabiru mycteria), the wood stork (cigueñón, Mycteria americana), roseate spoonbill (espátula rosada, Platalea ajaia), the rufous-tailed hummingbird (colibrí rabirrufo, Amazilia tzacatl), and the violaceous trogon (Trogon violaceus).
There are at least some 160 species of mammals (90 bats and 70 terrestrial mammals), among them the monkeys (howler, spider, and white-faced), white-lipped peccary (sahino), common opossum (zorro pelón), forest rabbit (conejo de monte), and skunk. The raccoon has experienced a population increase and has caused an imbalance in the population of the turtle, Trachemys scripta, due to nest predation.
b. La Cureña Forest Reserve (Reserva Forestal La Cureña) This reserve features a tropical humid forest, with an average temperature of approximately 26°C, ranging between 30.4°C and 21.2°C. The rainfall regime characterizing the region presents a short dry season, which occurs between the months of March and April, with sporadic rainfall events. The rainiest months occur between June and November, when rainfall exceeds 300 mm per month, and where the average annual precipitation is between 2,800 and 3,600 mm. The average annual potential evapotranspiration for this thermal province is 1,750 mm. The altitude is between 30 and 100 masl. The reserve mainly features outcrops of lahars composed of heterogeneous volcanic materials, with a matrix comprising clay, sand, and coarse sand. These deposits are characterized by an extended flat topography and by undulating hills, known regionally as "hogback ridges" ("lomo de cerdo"). These hills are surrounded by lower terrain, therefore rainwater, streams generally flow through, or there are yolillales and small swamps surrounded by forest. Along the riverbanks, there are alluvial deposits. The Cureña and Cureñita Rivers are found here; before flowing into the San Juan River, they form extensive lakes and herbaceous swamps. The Cureña forms the Maquenque Lagoon. The river levels follow the region's rainfall regime, with maximum levels during the rainfall peaks between July and September; they respond quickly, increasing their level when the region is affected by storms or hurricanes. One of the main problems of these rivers is sedimentation, as well as in the lagoons and swamps. In early secondary forests, one can find gavilán (*Pentaclethra macroloba*), botarrama (*Vochysia ferruginea*), fruta dorada (*Virola koschnyi*), alcanfor (*Protium sp.*), and others such as burío, guarumo, achiotillo, santa maría, jacaranda, tabacón, and manga larga. In the lagoons and swamps, it is common to find species from the families Papilionaceae, Melastomataceae, Araceae, Amaryllidaceae, Onagraceae, and Cyperaceae. In the yolillales and flooded forests, bolillo and corozo are found, frequently associated with gavilán, sangrillo, and other minor species. The other flooded forests are mainly composed of sangrillo, cativo, sotacaballo, poponjoche, and caobilla. The area contains a large number of threatened tree species and others in danger of extinction. Recent studies have found trees that are on the IUCN Red List; examples of threatened trees are coquito (*Astrocaryum alatum*), *Caesaria spp.*, repollito (*Eschweilera spp.*), cuero de sapo (*Licania kallunkii*), zapotillo (*Pouteria spp.*), and cativo (*Prioria copaifera*). Endemic trees such as naranjito (*Capparis pittieri*), *Dussia macrophyllata*, tostao (*Sclerolobium costaricense*), and botarrama (*Vochysia allenii*), and trees on the verge of extinction such as cola de pavo (*Hymenolobium mesoamericanum*), ciprecillo (*Podocarpus guatemalensis*), areno (*Qualea paraensis*), and chiricano (*Vantanea barbourii*). The fish fauna is part of the San Juan ichthyological province, and in its rivers and lagoons, it is common to observe species such as mojarras, viejas, sardinas, guapotes, and machacas, among others. Regarding amphibians, 20 species have been reported, and a total of 57 is expected. In reptiles, more than 23 species have been reported, and around 91 species are expected. Among the mammals, there are three species of monkey (congo, araña, and carablanca); the puma, caucel, manigordo, jaguar, león breñero, sahino and cariblanco, cabro de monte, dantas, oso colmenero, tepezcuintle, guatusa, and martilla. A large number of bird species indicate that the Cureña area is a site of great importance for bird conservation, including threatened species such as the lapa verde (*Ara ambigua*) and the lapa roja (*Ara macao*); and rare species such as the pavón (*Crax rubra*) and pava (*Penelope purpurascens*). It is estimated that more than 340 bird species may be found here.
c. Cerro El Jardín Forest Reserve (Reserva Forestal Cerro El Jardín) The information available on this reserve is extremely scarce; however, it can be said that the description of the geophysical and biological environment is very similar to that described for the La Cureña Forest Reserve (Reserva Forestal La Cureña). The forest type is very humid tropical, its geomorphology is very rugged, between 50 and 360 masl. There are two main channels, which are the Caño Jardín and Caño Chile. Around 65% of the land is suitable for forest management or regeneration, as it has slopes between 30 and 50% and soils limited by effective depth; approximately 25% of the soils are suitable for the preservation of flora and fauna or protection as a genetic reserve. A very low percentage may be suitable for agriculture. The flora and fauna are similar to that described for the La Cureña Reserve. It is important to highlight that in this region, there are tree species on the verge of extinction, threatened species, endemic species, and species new to science. The fauna of this area is also highly threatened, and in its forests, there are mammal species that are endangered, such as monkeys, felines, venado cabro, danta, martilla, and chanchos de monte. It is also an important area for the feeding, reproduction, and nesting of the lapa verde and the lapa roja; and for the protection and conservation of a large number of bird species.
2.1.4. Tortuguero Conservation Area (Área de Conservación Tortuguero) a. Barra del Colorado National Wildlife Refuge (Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Barra del Colorado) It is located in the northeastern part of the country, next to the Costa Rican Caribbean coast, mostly in the Colorado district, Pococí canton of the Limón province, and approximately 20,000 ha are in the Sarapiquí canton of the Heredia province (the northwestern sector). It was created as a mixed-type refuge. It encompasses the tropical very humid forest life zone, where several derivations of plant associations coexist, such as the yolillales (*Raphia taedigera*), which occurs in large concentrations and covers most of the refuge's core area. Altitudes range from sea level up to 250 masl; where the Coronel and Cocori hills stand out, which is the part where 58 species of plants endemic to the refuge have been located. The climate is varied; depending on the time of year, maximum annual precipitation of 6,000 mm has been recorded in the northernmost sector; there is no defined dry season; however, the least rainy months are January, February, March, and April, when temperatures intensify, even reaching sunny days with temperatures around 30°C and cold rainy nights around 20°C. The average temperature is 25°C. Its geomorphology is a product of the filling of the Atlantic Slope by materials ejected mainly from the volcanoes of the Central Volcanic Range (Cordillera Volcánica Central), resulting in the plains of the region, with the exception, of course, of the low-altitude hills found in the refuge (Cerros Coronel and Cocori, Cerro Tortuguero – 119 masl). Because the area is flat, the formation of deltas, channels (caños), and lagoons has been favored. Part of the deposited sediments are of marine origin; however, the surface mostly contains sediments from the mountains. It has an extensive network of navigable canals, channels (caños), and rivers that constitute the main means of communication and mobilization within the refuge, especially its core area. There are a large number of lagoons, some quite extensive, which are an important feeding and reproduction area for the early stages of the main fish species that sustain the fishery in the region.
b. Tortuguero Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Tortuguero) It is the strip of land formerly known as the Tortuguero Biological Corridor (Corredor Biológico Tortuguero), which connects Tortuguero National Park (Parque Nacional Tortuguero) with Barra del Colorado National Wildlife Refuge (Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Barra del Colorado). Thanks to the administrative and financial management of the Fundación Neotrópica, most of the lands in the protective zone were purchased with funds from Denmark. Currently, most of the lands have been annexed to Tortuguero National Park, and what remains of the Tortuguero Protective Zone is approximately 6,266.74 ha. The life zone is tropical very humid forest; however, the remaining forest is fragmented and manifests as small patches, in some cases isolated from one another. It is practically entirely flat, an extensive plain (altitude less than 25 masl) flooded mainly by the Tortuguero, La Suerte, and Penitencia Rivers, and the Caño Suertecita, Palacios, and Chiquero; therefore, the area remains flooded for most of the year, especially the farms closest to the coast, which are now part of Tortuguero National Park. Geologically, there is currently no volcanic activity despite the region's formation originating from it and continuing through the sediments it contributes. The area is located on the Caribbean Plate, from which a slight eastward movement has been detected; however, it is considered low-movement; only three earthquakes have been recorded since the end of the 18th century. Regarding representative flora, there are species such as sangrillo, cativo (one of the most abundant species in the area), almendro, the yolillo palm, gavilán, and caobilla. Fauna includes the jaguar, manigordo, ocelote, tepezcuintle, guatusa, three species of continental turtles where the jicotea turtle stands out, various species of frogs such as the red and green poison dart frogs and the glass frogs; and toads. In the rivers and channels (caños), there are freshwater fish species such as the guapote.
c. Pococí and Guácimo Aquifers Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Acuíferos de Pococí y Guácimo) It is located in the upper part of the Pococí and Guácimo cantons, with land access via a paved road and a stretch of gravel road where, during the heavy rainy season (May to October), entry must be made in a double-traction vehicle. It was decreed with the objective of protecting the aquifer that supplies water to the cantons of Guápiles and Guácimo. Its climate and rainfall regime seem to respond more to the lower parts of the Central Volcanic Range (Cordillera Volcánica Central) than to the Tortuguero Plains, manifesting in a slightly warmer average temperature of 26°C and less intense but somewhat more frequent rainfall.
2.1.5. La Amistad Caribe Conservation Area (Área de Conservación La Amistad Caribe) a. Pacuare - Matina Forest Reserve (Reserva Forestal Pacuare - Matina) It is located in the Matina canton, Limón province. It is an area constituted by a tropical humid forest that is within the premontane very humid forest life zone, transition to tropical basal. The flora of the place, in its coastal part, is constituted by halophytic herbaceous vegetation and shrubs where one can find grasses and sedges, such as papaturro or beach grape and some fabaceae, apart from sectors with caña brava and coconut palms. There is also vegetation formed by trees of cativo, níspero, cedro macho, and gavilán, among other species. In the actual swamp areas, it is common to observe sangregado, guaitil, guácimo blanco, and other formations constituted by yolillo and gamalote, apart from other species such as guarumo, roble de sabana, guabo, pilón, and tabacón, especially in the higher parts. Among the most representative wildlife species are the green turtle (*Chelonia mydas*), carey (*Eretmochelys imbricata*), and baula (*Dermochelys coriacea*), apart from freshwater turtles and guajipales; mammals such as the danta, jaguar, monkeys, mapachines, and pizotes. Also found are iguanas, garrobos, toads, snakes, and a great variety of birds. Geologically, the area is within a unit of recent fluvial, colluvial, and coastal deposits. The geomorphology of the place is constituted by a unit of coastal cords and lagoons. The hydrology is dominated by very swampy terrain, which is why it lacks hydrological importance, given the poor definition of drainage channels. The climate is dominated by average annual rainfall ranging from 2,500 to 3,500 mm and average temperatures from 25 to 30ºC and minimums of 21ºC. The area has heights that range between a maximum of 2 and 5 masl.
b. Río Pacuare Forest Reserve (Reserva Forestal Río Pacuare) It is located in the provinces of Limón and Cartago, cantons of Siquirres and Turrialba. It is an area composed of very humid lowland and intermediate forests. The average precipitation ranges from 3,000 to 4,000 mm annually, and the temperature is 25ºC in the lower parts and 22.5ºC in the higher places. The plant associations present at the site are the tropical very humid forest, tropical humid forest transition to premontane, premontane very humid forest transition to basal, and premontane rainforest. Floristically, species such as ceiba, molenillo, jinocuabe, surá, cedro maría, sangrillo, pilón, cedro macho, peine de mico, and laurel are found, among others. The most representative wildlife is the jaguar, manigordo, león breñero, cabro de monte, tepezcuintle, guatusa, mono congo, tolomuco, frogs, iguanas, mapache, sloths, and a series of bird species. From a hydrographic point of view, the area plays an important role for the communities located to its north (Siquirres, Indiana, Pacuarito, Monteverde, Cimarrones, Río Hondo, Veintisiete Millas, Batáan, etc.), due to its richness in water supply, among other benefits. This area is formed by important watercourses such as the Pacuare, Cimarrones, Madre de Dios, Hondo, Barbilla, Dantas Rivers, and a series of streams and creeks. In general, the area has a rugged topography with slopes ranging from approximately 15 to 70%, with heights ranging between 100 and 838 masl. Geologically, it is formed by three units: A) Suretka Formation; conglomerates of basalt, andesite, and quartz diorite blocks in a clay matrix, and intercalations of calcareous sandstones, B) Uscari Formation; silty shales and sandstones, and C) Senosri Formation; brecciated limestones, organogenic, shales, and calcarenites. Geomorphologically, the area belongs to the tectonic-erosive origin form of the Talamanca Mountain Range (Cordillera de Talamanca), which is characterized by presenting deep valleys, steep slopes with the presence of faults and folds.
c. Cuenca Río Banano Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Cuenca Río Banano) It is located in the Matama district of the Limón canton. It presents a very dense humid forest, considered to exceed 70% coverage. In this protective zone, there is annual precipitation ranging from 2,200 to 3,500 mm and an average annual temperature that ranges between 24°C and 26°C. The present life zones are: Lower montane rainforest, Premontane rainforest, and Tropical very humid forest. The vegetation in this area is characteristic of the Atlantic region; it has a great diversity of evergreen species, where the presence of broad leaves in several strata predominates. The predominant species are achotillo, campano, fruta dorada, cedro amargo, caobilla, areno, and ceibo, among others. The area's wildlife is diverse, especially in mammals and birds, finding the mono colorado, congo, and carablanca, the jaguar, danta, chancho de monte, cabro de monte, armadillos, among others. Birds such as the pavón, pava, keel-billed toucans, lora de copete amarillo, among another series of species, are commonly observed in the upper parts of the area. All the waters that feed the Banano River basin originate in its protective zone of the same name. Its main tributaries are the Segundo, Tercero, Nuevo, Aguas Zarcas Rivers, and another series of streams and creeks that jointly form a dendritic drainage pattern. The area is characterized by a rugged to very steep relief (Fila Matama) with slopes ranging from 10 to 70% and altitudinal ranges from 200 to 1,900 masl. The geological formations of the area comprise four units, namely: A) Senosri Formation, brecciated limestones, calcarenites, and shales, B) Tuis Formation, constituted by agglomerates, limestones, siltstones, sandstones, silty-shaly shales, and basalt flows C) Río Banano Formation, constituted by an alternation of strata of sandstones, conglomerates, coral reefs, sands, and clays, and D) Uscari Formation, of silty shales with metric stratification and sandstones. The area presents two geomorphological formations; each with two different origin units: A) Forms of tectonic and erosive origin, formed by the Talamanca Mountain Range Unit (Unidad de la Cordillera de Talamanca), of deep valleys and steep slopes, and B) Composite hills and ridges, of regular slopes.
d. Cuenca del Río Siquirres Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Cuenca del Río Siquirres) It is located in the Limón province, Siquirres canton. The area is within a humid forest where a great variety of tree and plant species predominate. It presents temperatures ranging from 22 to 28ºC annually and precipitation of 3,000 to 4,000 mm annually. The following life zones are represented in the area: Premontane very humid forest transition to basal, Tropical very humid forest, and Tropical very humid forest transition to premontane. In general, the flora of the area is constituted by laurel, amarillón, fruta dorada, pilón, chancho, jabillo, sotacaballo, caobilla, anonillo, roble encino, and some exotic planted species, with pine, melina, and eucalyptus. On the other hand, there is a great variety of palms, ferns, parasites, and another series of species. The most representative wildlife species are the tepezcuintle, guatusa, mono congo, sloth, iguanas, squirrels, and several species of birds. Hydrographically, the area is formed by the Siquirres River as the main one, the Siquirritos River, and some streams. It presents a dendritic drainage pattern with a northeast orientation and a somewhat rectangular shape. The area has an elevation change from 280 to 779 masl, with slopes ranging from 15 to 45%, presenting undulating, inclined, and hilly terrain forms. The geology of the place is constituted by the following geological units or formations: A) Suretka, with a conglomerate constituted by fragments of basalt, andesite, and quartz diorite, B) Uscari, constituted by clays, shales, and sandstones, and C) Río Banano, constituted by fossiliferous green sandstones, conglomerates, and coral reefs. The geomorphology of the area is characterized by presenting forms of tectonic and erosive origin, with deep valleys, steep slopes, and a large presence of faults and folds.
e. Gandoca - Manzanillo National Wildlife Refuge (Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Gandoca - Manzanillo) It is located in the Limón province, Talamanca canton. It is composed of lowland humid forests, where the average annual precipitation ranges between 2,000 and 3,000 mm, and average annual temperatures from 22 to 27 ºC. It is located in the tropical humid forest life zone. Studies conducted demonstrate the presence of important wetland ecosystems formed by yolillales, mangroves, cativeras, and herbaceous swamps; palms, coconut palms, sangrillo, caobilla, fruta dorada, chilamate, and cedro are others among the great variety of species present in the area. The area contains a high diversity of animal species, many of them endemic: crocodiles, caimans, otters, manatees, tepezcuintles, sloths, mono colorado, congo, león breñero, sahinos, iguanas, guatusas, etc. This fauna is increased by the marine-coastal environments, such as the coral reefs where we find a great variety of plant and animal species, among them sponges, algae, mollusks, and countless fish species. The hydrographic network of the area is dominated by rivers such as the Sixaola, Gandoca, Cócles, and streams such as Ernesto, Mile Creek, and another series of creeks that originate in the coastal mountain ranges and the foothills of the Talamanca Mountain Range (Cordillera de Talamanca). The topography of the place is quite flat, where we find slopes that range between 5 and 30% in the highest parts. The maximum height present in the area is almost 200 masl and the minimum is 2 masl. Two geological units cover the area: A) A unit of bioclastic limestones, calcareous and conglomeratic sandstones, and tuffaceous shales, and B) A formation of recent fluvial, colluvial, and coastal deposits. It presents four geomorphic units: Sixaola River valley, permanent or temporary swamp, emerged coral platform, and Talamanca Mountain Range (Cordillera de Talamanca).
f. Limoncito National Wildlife Refuge (Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Limoncito) It is located in the Limón province, Limón canton. Its forests are found in the life zone called premontane very humid forest, transition to tropical basal. The average annual precipitation is 2,500 to 3,000 mm, with average temperatures of 21 to 26ºC. The area geomorphologically belongs to alluvial plain forms and the low hills unit. The average elevation of this refuge is 5 masl; with a relatively flat topography, and its geological conformation is governed by two units, namely: A) Recent fluvial, colluvial, and coastal deposits and B) Río Banano Formation; fossiliferous green sandstones, conglomerates, and coral reefs. The flora of the area is mainly constituted by yolillales, sangrillo, chilamate, cativo, and a great variety of palms, among another series of species. The fauna is composed of a great abundance of guajipales, pizotes, guatusas, iguanas, mono congo, tepezcuintle, sloth, and the presence of freshwater fish such as barbudo, mojarra, and bobo, and a great variety of bird species. Hydrographically, the area plays an important role as a wetland, which is governed by a series of creeks and three important watercourses, which are the Limoncito River, the Quebrada Westfalia, and the Estero Cieneguita.
2.1.6. La Amistad Pacífico Conservation Area (Área De Conservación La Amistad Pacífico) a. Las Tablas Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Las Tablas) In this protective zone, three life zones are found: Premontane very humid forest, Lower montane very humid forest, and Montane rainforest. Geomorphologically, the protective zone is divided into three units: A) Forms of tectonic origin, situated in the highlands above 2,000 m and exposed to erosion. B) Denudation forms that correspond to the intermediate lands and are located at more than 1,300 m. C) The lowest parts that show alluvial sedimentation. Several important rivers are located: Cedro, Gemelos, Cotón, Cotito, Hamaca, Suray, and Bellavista. Regarding flora, the following species are found: aguacatillo, amarillón, campano, candelillo, cedro dulce, ciprés lorito, encino, fruta dorada, ira rosa, maría, madroño, quina, quizarrá, roble copey, roble del irazú, roble de boruca, and tirrá. The fauna is represented by: armadillo, armado zopilote, cariblancos, cabro de monte, conejo de monte, dantas, manigordo, jaguar, puma, caucel, león breñero, tigrillo, mapachín, mono congo, mono colorado, mono carablanca, nutria or perro de agua, puerco espín, pizote, two-toed sloth, three-toed sloth, tolumuco, sahinos, deer (venados). In birds, the crested eagle, solitary eagle, spotted quail, capitán cocora, volcano hummingbird, fiery-throated hummingbird, red-tailed hawk, chestnut-breasted falcon, black guan, orange-chinned parakeet, barred parakeet, green toucanet, red widow, and red-headed vulture.
b. Río Sombrero - Navarro Protective Zone (Zona Protectora Río Sombrero - Navarro) It is located south of the Cartago province, about 8 km from the city of Cartago, in the cantons of Central and El Guarco, in the districts of San Isidro and San Francisco. There are nine access routes, seven from the Inter-American Highway, two from Cartago (Lourdes and Puente Negro), passable year-round with a double-traction vehicle. The micro-watersheds are developed predominantly in sedimentary units, and in their northern section, intrusive rocks are found. The sedimentary rocks belong to the Pacacua Formation and Aguacate Complex (sandstones with shale strata). The intrusive rocks probably belong to a batholith (Talamanca Comagmatic Group). Both the sedimentary unit and the intrusive unit are cut by faults and fractures. The sedimentary rocks being more permeable. The associated soils are Entic Dystrandept and Andic Tropehumult (Romero, C., 1980). It presents irregular relief, with the presence of hills, with slopes ranging from: A) 0 - 20% in an area of 13%, B) 20 - 30% in an area of 22%, C) 30 - 40% in an area of 35%, D) More than 40% in an area of 52%. The area is influenced by winds from the Caribbean zone, and its temperatures range from 12°C to 24°C. Its average annual precipitation is 2,000 to 3,000 mm (Romero, C., 1990). The life zones present here are: Premontane very humid forest, Lower montane very humid forest (1,700 masl), and Lower montane rainforest. Oak forests predominate in the upper part; in the lower and intermediate parts, cedro dulce, cedro amargo, chancho blanco, yas, lloró, ira mangle, ira copalillo, encino blanco, jaúl, and introduced species such as cypress and eucalyptus. The following wildlife species are found: manigordo, caucel, puma, and others such as armadillo, weasel, danta, guatusa, mapachín, mono carablanca, pizote, sahino, zarigüella, cabro de monte. Among the birds, the hummingbird, chingolo, semillerito, cariamarillo, woodpecker, careto, red-fronted parakeet, cacique, yigüirros, comemaíz, sinsote, jilguero, zetillero, quail, pia-pia, oropéndola, mozotillo de montaña, green toucanet, quetzal, hawks, pavas, rualdo, picudo mielero, and ring-necked dove.
c. Río Macho Forest Reserve (Reserva Forestal Río Macho) It is located in the eastern part of the Cordillera de Talamanca, south of the province of Cartago, in the cantons of Guarco, Paraíso, Jiménez, and Turrialba, in the districts of San Isidro, San Francisco, Orosi, La Suiza, and Pejibaye. Its main access route is the Carretera Interamericana Sur with a wide 30 km front. There are other secondary roads entering via the route that goes from Cartago to Orosi, and from Turrialba to La Suiza and Pejibaye, passable year-round. Other routes are the ICE tracks that go to the electrical transmission lines. Its origin was Tertiary (Miocene) with abrupt Pliocene uplift; during this phase, this part of the Cordillera de Talamanca emerged, with the accumulation of Tertiary sediments (Miocene and early Pleistocene) and volcanic activity. The main rocks (Valverde, 1989) are: A) Tapantí siliciclastic metasedimentary unit (Formación Pacacua), B) Intrusions unit (Grupo Comagmático de Talamanca), C) Formación Río Macho (conglomeratic unit), and D) Recent materials unit. There is evidence of Pleistocene glaciers on the alpine floor, today covered by Páramo (Kappelle, 1996). There are five associated soil types: A) Typic Dystropept, shallow reddish soils, B) Typic Placandept, deep soil derived from ash, C) Andic Humitropept, reddish-brown and shallow soil, D) Lithic trapofolist, shallow mountain organic soil, E) Typic tropehumult, reddish and acidic clay soil. Average precipitation ranges from 6,500 mm to 8,700 mm, receiving great influence from the Caribbean Slope (Vertiente Caribe). Average temperature ranges from 7°C to 22°C, between 700 meters above sea level (msnm) and 3,401 msnm. Five life zones are represented: Premontane very humid forest (Bosque muy húmedo premontano), Premontane rain forest (Bosque pluvial premontano), Lower montane rain forest (Bosque pluvial montano bajo), Montane rain forest (Bosque pluvial montano), and Subalpine rain forest (Bosque pluvial subalpino). It protects around 150 watercourses, among which the following stand out: Grande de Orosi, Pejibaye, Macho, Humo, Chirripó Caribe, Pacuare, Gato, Porras, and Villegas. A large part of them form part of the Reventazón River basin. There are important rural aqueducts (5) and one large one (Acueducto de Orosi) with a flow of 1,900 lts/s, benefiting 870,000 inhabitants of the GAM. There are several hydroelectric projects (Río Macho, active) and the planned Cuerici I and Cuericí II projects. There is high biological diversity, highlighting the oak forest (robledales) colonies, 70 species of non-timber trees, a great variety of orchids, bromeliads, ferns, lana, palmito, arrayán, chile muela, and timber trees such as: cedro dulce, magnolia, cipresillo, lloró. Regarding representative fauna, there are: jaguar, manirroto, caucel, puma, and other species such as cabro de monte, sahino, danta, tepezcuintle, mapache, pizote, mono Casablanca, coyotes. In the bird group: the quetzal, jilguero, hummingbirds (colibríes), woodcreepers (trepadores), toucans (tucanes), ducks (patos), rualdos, paloma collareja, mozotillo de montaña, escarchero, pavas, hawks (gavilanes), woodpeckers (carpinteros).
2.1.7. Área de Conservación Osa a. Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Golfito It is considered important for the stability of the slopes surrounding Golfito, as well as for the production of sources of drinking water. It is located north of the city of Golfito, province of Puntarenas. The Refugio de Vida Silvestre Golfito is located in one of the country's areas of highest precipitation. The refuge's area is 2,300 ha, with an average annual temperature and precipitation of 27°C and 5,000 mm, respectively. This area is included within the tropical very humid or tropical humid biotic units with one or two dry months. Currently, 2,150 species of flora have been identified. The forests are characterized by their large trees, such as ceiba (Ceiba pentandra), abrojos (Sloanea sp.), or species with straight and twisted boles such as cara de tigre (Stephanopodium costarricense), in addition to species like nazareno (Peltogyne purpurea), whose largest populations are concentrated in this area. In the most altered forests, gallinazo (Schizolobium parahyba) is found. The understory (sotobosque) is full of shrubby plants where Melastomaceas and Rubiaceas predominate. The fauna features bird species, such as frigatebirds (fragatas), pelicans (pelícanos), or smaller mammal species such as guatuza (Dasyprocta punctata) and tepezcuintle (Agouti paca).
b. Reserva Forestal Golfo Dulce The Península de Osa presents a rectangular shape approximately 25 km wide and 57 km long. It is located in the southeast of Costa Rica, on the Pacific coast. It is situated in the districts of Sierpe and Jiménez, in the cantons of Osa and Golfito, in the province of Puntarenas. It has an area of 61,583 ha. It is formed by the tectonic uplift caused by the subduction of the Cocos Plate under the Caribbean Plate. The north-south direction of the Panama fracture defines part of the eastern boundary of the Cocos Plate. This fault crosses the isthmus east of the Península de Burica and presents a trench that is characteristic of the Golfo Dulce. The basement of the Península de Osa comprises three main formations: Complejo de Nicoya, Formación Charco Azul, and Formación Armuelles. There are recent unconsolidated fluvio-alluvial deposits; these sediment deposits take the form of fluvial terraces and colluvio-alluvial fans. The Península de Osa is subdivided into three geomorphological areas: A) Coastal plains: Comprises the entire coastline of the Golfo Dulce, from Rincón de Osa to Punta Matapalo. It presents slopes of less than 5° and encompasses flood areas, presenting a meandering drainage system. B) Piedmont sector: Constitutes the transition area between the coastal plains and the mountain ranges. It is characterized by a series of small alluvial fans and terraces. Due to the climatic, topographic, and tectonic conditions of the zone, the fluvial system presents torrential characteristics of great speed and with flows that cause problems in the lower parts. C) Mountain ranges: They are formed by a chain of hills whose elevations are slightly flattened. They present a NW-SE direction; among the main ones are the Cerros Chocuaco, Brujo, and Rincón. The average temperature is 27°C with monthly variations of 0.5°C to 1°C. The maximums occur in the months of March-April and the minimums in December-January. Evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation for about 3 months each year. One of the rainiest subregions of the South Pacific (Pacífico Sur) is the Península de Osa, whose rainfall regime is the highest, with average precipitation of 4,000 to 5,000 mm of rain per year. An 8-month rainy period and 4 months with decreased rainfall are estimated for the zone. This results in an average relative humidity of 90 to 100% throughout the year. Solar radiation varies from 4 to 5 hours in the rainy periods and from 6 to 7 in the months of lower precipitation. It is characterized by clayey soils and steep slopes. There are plain sectors, whose formation is silty clay, characterized by alluvial fill or degradation from high parts. Other sectors are predominantly silty. Another sector is silty loam with steep slopes, which favors erosion. The area possesses flora of thousands of species, with 24 endemic or restricted distribution species. An example of this is ajo (Caryocar costaricense), ojoche (Brosimum costaricanum), and cedro caracolito (Ruptiliocarpon caracolito). Among its characteristics, it presents a forest sector dominated by the species Peltogyne purpurea (nazareno), located in the Mogos sector. Other representative species of high commercial value are: quira (Ocotea sp), cachimbo (Couratari guianensis), cedro macho (Carapa guianensis), fruta dorada (Virola sp), and manú negro (Minquartia guianensis). There are other species whose commercial value has turned them into endangered species, such as: ajo negro (Anthodiscus chocoensis), camibar (Copaifera camibar), among others. Regarding life zones, it possesses a basal tropical humid forest (bosque húmedo tropical basal) and tropical premontane (tropical premontano) forest; locally, tropical cloud forest (bosque tropical nuboso) appears in the high parts of the Cerros Mueller, Rincón, and Brujo; there are wetlands (humerales) such as Laguna Chocuaco.
2.1.8. Área de Conservación Pacífico Central a. Zona Protectora Caraigres It has an area of 3,204 ha and is located, according to the political-administrative division, in the cantons of Acosta and Aserrí, province of San José. It protects some remnants of primary forest on the Cerro Caraigres or Dragón, whose maximum height above sea level is 2,506 msnm. It is an extremely rugged area, protecting the springs (nacientes) of several tributaries of the Candelaria and Parrita Rivers. Most of the protected zone (zona protectora) is deforested. The main forest remnant is protected on a 260 ha farm, which is state property. Despite their small size, these forests are of great importance for the protection of flora, fauna, soil, and water resources. The climate is humid, temperate, with a moderate dry season (35-70 days with water deficit). It is characterized by frequent cloudiness, wind, and humidity. The average annual precipitation is 2,250 mm. The average temperature is 20°C. It is located on the Fila Bustamante, on the Pacific slope of Talamanca. The geomorphology of Cerro Caraigres shows forms of structural origin, caused by fault displacement. It is characterized by steep slopes of sedimentary rocks (Formación Caraigres and Formación Parritilla). The soils are red, deep, low in bases, susceptible to erosion (latosol and litosol), with limitations so severe that they can only be used for the protection of water, wildlife, and/or for aesthetic purposes. It is located on the watershed divide of the Candelaria River basin to the north and Parrita to the south. To the north and northwest, the Caraigres and Las Mesas rivers originate, which are tributaries of the Candelaria River. To the south, the Las Delicias stream originates, which is a tributary of the Pirrís or Parrita River. It is located in the montane rain forest (bosque pluvial montano) life zone, characterized by the presence of oak forests (robledales) (Quercus spp). More than 80 species of plants have been identified, including vines (bejucos), herbs, shrubs, and trees. The most frequent tree species are: three species of oaks (Quercus sp), cedro dulce, tirrá, cacho de venado, ciprecillo, aguacatillo, chilemuelo, ortiga de montaña, and hinchador, among others. It is common to find caregre (Lippia torressii), a close relative of oregano and chan. Due to the severe destruction and fragmentation of the forest, there are few fauna species.
b. Zona Protectora El Rodeo It is located in the canton of Mora, province of San José, with an area of 2,256 ha, of which about 750 ha are covered with forest. The Zona Protectora El Rodeo comprises lands from 550 msnm in the Río Jaris basin to 1,000 msnm at Alto Gracias a Dios. The climate is humid, very hot, with a long dry season, with more than 70 days of water deficit. The rainy season is from May to October, and the dry season is from November to April. The average annual precipitation is 2,200 mm. The average annual temperature is 24°C. It is located on the southern limit of the Western Central Valley (Valle Central Occidental). In general, the region is characterized by low mountains (2,000 m altitude), heavily affected by erosion and almost completely deforested. The Jaris River, on its left bank, carves a shear fault separating the sedimentary units (Formación Pacacua and Peña Negra) from the volcanic units (Formación Aguacate). The southern slope is characterized by an advanced evolution of clayey soils, from loam-colored red to red-brown. These latter are 90% deprived of their forest cover (cobertura forestal), and this since the beginning of the century, presenting all the characteristics of advanced erosion. In the Hacienda El Rodeo sector, very rugged terrain with slopes of 30-45% is present, while in the Jaris River basin, broken terrain with slopes of 45-60% is found. It protects more than 16 permanent streams (quebradas) and about 20 intermittent streams that are tributaries of the Quebrada Honda River and the Jaris River, which in turn are tributaries of the Virilla River. It presents two life zones: Tropical humid forest transition to premontane (Bosque húmedo tropical transición a premontano) in the lower parts and Premontane very humid forest (Bosque muy húmedo de premontano) in the higher parts. Among the tree species of commercial interest, the following stand out: pochote (Bombacopsis quinata), ron rón (Astronium graveolens), cocobolo (Dalbergia retusa), bálsamo (Myroxylon balsamum), cedro amargo (Cedrela odorata), guanacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum), and roble de sabana (Tabebuia rosea). In the understory (sotobosque), platanillas and tree ferns (helechos arborescentes) abound. In open areas, guácimo (Guazuma ulmifolia), roble de sabana (Tabebuia rosea), corteza amarilla (Tabebuia ochracea), guarumo (Cecropia sp.), balsa (Ochroma pyramidale), and guachipelín are common. It protects the only population of white-tailed deer (venado cola blanca, Odocoileus virginianus) in the Central Valley. Other present species are: white-faced monkey (mono carablanca, Cebus capucinus), pizote (Nasua narica), raccoon (mapache, Procyon lotor), common armadillo (armadillo común, Dasypus novemcinctus), armadillo zopilote (Cabassous centralis), two-toed sloth (perezoso, Choloepus hoffmanii), coyote (Canis latrans), gray fox or tigrillo (zorra gris, Uroscyon cinereoargenteus), jaguarundi (león breñero, Herpailurus yagoaroundi), caucel (Leopardus wiedii), tepezcuintle (Agouti paca), guatuza (Dasyprocta punctata), weasel (comadreja, Mustela frenata), tayra (tolomuco, Eira barbara), common squirrel (ardilla común, Sciurus variegatoides), and a great variety of wild mice (ratones silvestres) and bats (murciélagos). Among reptiles, there are the garrobo (Ctenosaura similis) and the green iguana (iguana verde, Iguana iguana). Among birds, the keel-billed toucan (tucán pico iris, Rhamphastos sulfuratus), the common woodpecker (carpintero común, Melanerpes sp), and several species of hawks (gavilanes) stand out.
c. Zona Protectora Tivives It is located in the San Juan Grande district, Esparza canton, province of Puntarenas. It presents three well-defined sectors: a) the Mata de Limón Mangrove Sector, b) the Cerro Alto de las Mesas Sector, which also includes two settlements, Cambalache and Salinas, and c) the Tivives Mangrove Sector. The two mangrove sectors are state property, while Alto de las Mesas presents both private and state properties. Herrera (1986) defines two types of climate: A) Subhumid dry climate, very hot. Average annual precipitation ranges between 1,300 and 1,710 mm. The average annual temperature is 27ºC. Here, coastal and surrounding areas are located, covering the Alto de las Mesas sector, and B) Subhumid humid climate, with a very large water deficit. Average annual precipitation ranges between 1,710 – 2,050 mm. The average annual temperature is 26º and 28ºC. The dry season encompasses the months of December to April. Geologically, it shows materials from the Tertiary and Quaternary periods (Miembro Mata de Limón), containing lava fragments, mainly basalts; well exposed in Alto de las Mesas, in the delta of the Jesús María River, and in the Bajamar rock. This formation rests on the sedimentary rocks of the Tertiary period (Formación Punta Carballo) (Castillo, R. 1983). The Orotina plateau is carved by a second important river located between the Tárcoles and the Barranca; the Jesús María River, which cuts a deep canyon and ends its course in the tectonic depression of Tivives, where it forms meanders in a vast mangrove swamp (Bergoeing, 1998). The soils present in the high part are: A) Shallow Inceptisols, low in bases, and dry for more than 90 days per year. These soils can be associated with shallow, stony clayey soils, and B) Entisols with poor drainage and coarse texture, influenced by tides. They are typical mangrove soils. Cerro Alto de las Mesas (100 msnm) is the water divide that drains towards the mangrove swamps of Tivives, Corralillo, and Mata de Limón. The micro-watersheds that drain from Alto de las Mesas are seasonal drainages that evacuate rainwater deposited on the high ground. There are no permanent watercourses. The life zones present are: Tropical dry forest transition to humid (Bosque seco tropical transición a húmedo) and Premontane humid forest transition to basal (Bosque húmedo premontano transición a basal). As a consequence of human activities, the original vegetation of Alto de las Mesas was drastically altered. Currently, small patches of secondary forest can be found mixed with large areas of pastures (potreros) and fallow land (tacotales). The most common tree species are: guanacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum), laurel (Cordia alliodora), guácimo (Guazuma ulmifolia), poro poro (Cochlospermum vitifolium), pochote (Bombacopsis quinata), roble de sabana (Tabebuia rosea), and cedro amargo (Cedrela odorata), among others. The fauna is relatively scarce and is represented by those species that tolerate the alteration of the natural forest, such as the white-tailed deer, pizote, armadillo, and common squirrel, among others. The vegetation of the Mata de Limón and Tivives mangroves is more closely related to the mangroves of the North Pacific, but they possess a great abundance of associated species typical of the South Pacific. This is why seven species of mangrove can be found represented: Rhizophora harrisonii, Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, Avicennia bicolor, Laguncularia racemosa, Conocarpus erecta, and Pelliciera rhizophorae (Jiménez, 1984).
d. Reserva Forestal Los Santos It is located in the cantons Dota and Pérez Zeledón, in the province of San José. It protects a great variety of ecosystems, among which stand out the subalpine paramo (páramo subalpino), peat bogs (turberas), high-elevation oak forests (robledales del altura), mixed oak forests (robledales mixtos), and cloud forests (bosques nubosos). Because the reserve encompasses lands from 300 to 3,400 msnm, the climate varies as one progresses along the altitudinal gradient. In the lower parts, the climate is very humid and hot; in the intermediate parts, it is excessively humid and hot; and in the high parts of the Cerros Las Vueltas and Buenavista, the climate is very humid and cold. The average annual temperature is 18°C in the wind-protected valleys near 2,000 msnm, and 6°C on the summits above 3,000 msnm. It is located in the Cordillera de Talamanca, which has a mainly volcanic-plutonic origin. The first products of the Talamanca volcanic eruptions are preferentially andesites and slightly acidic tuffs associated with pyroclastic material. Volcanic accumulation in a marine environment is evident, as these volcanic deposits alternate with marine sedimentary deposits (marls, vulcarenites, sandstones, shales/luitas). The intrusive rocks in the zone have a mineralogy typical of granodiorites and monzonites. It was not until the Upper Miocene and especially during the Pliocene that the Cordillera de Talamanca was uplifted. This orogenesis continues to this day (Bergoeing 1998). The Pacific slope (Vertiente del Pacífico), contrary to the Caribbean slope, has much more pronounced slope values (up to 45°). There are also narrow ridges, very steep slopes, and deep V-shaped valleys with steep hillsides, crossed by a series of ridges and crests with slopes exceeding 60%, of which the most important are Fila Dota to the northwest, Fila Mona and Fila Pangolín in the central part, and Cerro Lira and Fila Quebrador to the southeast. On the Cerros Vueltas and Buenavista, the soils are deep, derived from volcanic ash. In the middle and upper basin of the Savegre and Naranjo Rivers, the soils are reddish-brown with influence of volcanic ash, associated with clayey soils of similar characteristics. In the lower part of the reserve, near the middle course of the División River, the soils are red, deep, and low in bases. The northwestern part includes most of the upper Pirrís River basin and the Naranjo River basin. The central part includes the Providencia River basin, and to the southeast, it includes most of the División River basin. These last two form the Savegre River downstream. The Candelaria and Pirrís Rivers follow tectonic traces. The reserve has great potential for the production of drinking water and hydroelectric energy. The life zones present are: Premontane rain forest (Bosque pluvial premontano), Lower montane rain forest (Bosque pluvial montano bajo), Montane rain forest (Bosque pluvial montano), and Subalpine paramo (Páramo subalpino) on the summits of the Cerros Vueltas and Buenavista. Due to the large number of ecosystems it presents, the flora and fauna are very varied. By way of illustration, Kapelle (1998) obtained a list of 477 native woody species in the high parts of the Cordillera de Talamanca (more than 2,000 m). These correspond to 89 families and 220 genera. In the high-elevation oak group (Quercus sp.) alone, 6 species have been identified. The fauna also varies with the altitudinal gradient. Among the species associated with the subalpine paramo, the lizards (Sceloporus malachiticus and Gerrhonotus monticola), the salamander (Bolitoglossa sp), the highland rabbit (conejo de altura), the cabro de monte (Mazama americana), the puma (Puma concolor), and some species of hummingbirds (colibríes) are distinguished. As one descends the altitudinal gradient, the fauna becomes more diverse, finding species such as the band-tailed pigeon (paloma collareja, Columba fasciata), the black guan (pava, Chamaepetes unicolor), the black-faced solitaire (jilguero, Myadestes melanops), and the quetzal (Pharomachros mocinno). Among mammals, there are the collared peccary (sahino, Tayassu tajacu), white-lipped peccary (chancho de monte, Tayassu pecari), white-faced monkey (mono carablanca, Cebus capucinus), jaguar (Panthera onca), and the Baird's tapir (danta, Tapirus bairdii).
e. Zona Protectora Cerro Nara It is located in the Santa María district, Dota canton, province of San José, protecting primary and secondary forests located northeast of the city of Quepos, on the Fila Costeña. It comprises lands from 300 m in the Naranjo River course to 1,086 msnm at Cerro Nara. The climate is excessively humid, hot, with a short dry season (less than 35 intermittent days with water deficit (Herrera, W. 1985). Precipitation ranges from 4,000 to 5,000 mm. The driest months are December and January. Average annual temperature ranges between 18° and 24°C. Cerro Nara is located on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera de Talamanca. The terrains are constituted by forms of tectonic and erosive origin that extend to the coastal plain northeast of the Quepos promontory. Powerful dejection cones are present. In general, the slope is steep and elongated, with convex hillsides. Cerro Nara constitutes the maximum height at 1,086 msnm. The soils are reddish-brown, shallow, associated with clayey soils. In sites with steep slopes, they are stony and very susceptible to erosion. The soils present limitations so severe, such as precipitation greater than 5,000 mm annually on slopes greater than 60%, that they can only be used for the protection of water, wildlife, and/or for aesthetic purposes (OPSA, 1978). It possesses a good surface drainage network, with high infiltration and high water potential, as aquifers that supply drinking water to the community of Naranjito, in the canton of Aguirre, emerge there. The area is located in the premontane rain forest (bosque pluvial premontano) life zone. Little is known about the flora and fauna of this protected area. Among mammals, the tepezcuintle (Agouti paca), the cabro de monte (Mazama americana), the collared peccary (sahino, Tayassu tajacu), and several feline species have been reported.
f. Zona Protectora Cerros de Turrubares It is located southwest of San Pablo, in the canton of Turrubares, in the province of San José, and has an area of 2,867 ha. Initially, more than 70% was covered by pastures and agricultural crops. However, this situation has now been reversed, and more than 80% of it is covered by secondary forests. It borders the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Dr. Fernando Castro Cervantes. In the lower parts, the climate is humid, very hot, with a long dry season (more than 70 days with water deficit); while in the highest parts, the climate is very humid, temperate, with a short dry season (less than 35 days with water deficit). Precipitation exceeds 3,000 mm annually. In the lower parts, the life zone is tropical very humid forest, transition to premontane (bosque muy húmedo tropical, transición a premontano); while in the high parts, premontane rain forest (bosque pluvial premontano) and lower montane rain forest (bosque pluvial montano bajo) are present. Cerro Turrubares is a volcanic focus probably contemporaneous with Aguacate, whose activity continued into the Quaternary. The Turrubares cone reaches 1,756 msnm and preserves outcrops of little-altered lavas (andesites) at its summit. However, it can be affirmed that this volcanic edifice is the result of constant activity that lasted at least until the Quaternary (Bergoeing, 1998). The base of Cerro Turrubares is in contact with the Cretaceous rocks of the Complejo de Nicoya. The Tusubritos River, an important tributary of the Tusubres River, originates in the western piedmont of Turrubares and carves its own middle course along an important northwest-southeast fault alignment, which extends into the Pacific to Puntarenas. Several permanent and seasonal streams (quebradas) originate in this area, which are tributaries of the Turrubares and Carara Rivers. Within the protected zone (zona protectora) is located the drinking water intake for the city of Orotina. We find flora such as: oak (roble, Quercus sp), cascarillo (Lafoensia punicifolia), quizarrá (Nectandra sp), sapodilla (níspero, Manilkara zapota), cedar (cedro, Cedrela odorata), higuerón (Ficus sp), chilamate (Ficus sp), turrú (Parinari exelsa), gallinazo (Schyzolobium parahyba), guarumo (Cecropia peltata), burío (Heliocarpus sp), avocado (aguacate, Persea americana), jobo (Spondias mombin), surá (Terminalia oblonga), ojoche (Brosimum alicastrum), and peine de mico, among others. Among the fauna surrounding the zone are: white-faced monkey (mono carablanca, Cebus capucinus), cabro de monte (Mazama americana), white-tailed deer (venado cola blanca, Odocoileus virginianus), collared peccary (sahino, Tayassu tajacu), pizote (Nasua narica), raccoon (mapache, Procyon lotor), guatuza (Dasyprocta punctata), tepezcuintle (Agouti paca), ocelot (manigordo, Leopardus pardalis), caucel (Leopardus wiedii), jaguarundi (león breñero, Herpailurus yaguaroundi), northern tamandua (oso colmenero, Tamandua mexicana), common opossum (zorro pelón, Didelphis marsupialis), armadillo (Dasypus novemcintus), armadillo zopilote (Cabassous centralis), among others. Among birds, the scarlet macaw (lapa roja, Ara macao), keel-billed toucan (tucán pico iris, Rhamphastos sulfuratus), chestnut-mandibled toucan (tucán bicolor, Rhamphastos swainsonii), emerald toucanet (tucancillo verde, Aulacorhynchus prasinus), great curassow (pavón, Crax rubra), crested guan (pava granadera, Penelope purpurascens), scarlet-rumped tanager (el sargento, Ramphocellus passerini), and the striped cuckoo (cuclillo listado, Tapera naevia) stand out. Other species include the iguana (Iguana iguana) and the fer-de-lance snake (terciopelo, Bothrops asper).
g. Zona Protectora El Rosario It is located in the San Andrés district, León Cortés canton, San José province. It protects a portion of little-altered forest in the micro-basin of the Rosario stream, which downstream is a tributary of the Pirrís or Parrita River. This forest is one of the few sources that supply drinking water to the community of San Pablo León Cortés; approximately 2,600 people. The soils are reddish or yellowish-brown, deep, and low in bases. They are of volcanic origin. These soils have limitations that make them suitable only for forest use through special extraction techniques and for the protection of water, wild flora, and fauna (OPSA 1978). The climate is humid, temperate, with a moderate dry season (35-70 days with water deficit). It is characterized by frequent cloudiness, wind, and humidity. The average annual precipitation is 2,065 mm and the average annual temperature is 17.8°C. It is located on the Fila Bustamante, on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera de Talamanca. The base of this mountain range is formed mainly by folded and faulted Tertiary marine series, intruded during the Miocene by granodioritic intrusions. Volcanic activity occurred during the Miocene period (Grifo Alto Formation, andesites, and pyroclastic flows). The Pirrís or Parrita River runs along the longitudinal tectonic feature known as the Canderaria Fault. In its upper basin, where the protected zone is located, it has been stripped of its forest cover, which has led to a destabilization of the regulation of the river regime, causing floods near its mouth (Bergoeing, 1998). The vegetation has been altered; the majority of trees with diameters greater than 60 cm are oaks (Quercus sp), although sweet cedar (Cedrela sp), ira rosa (Nectandra sanguinea), and magnolia (Magnolia sp), arrayán, chilemuela, guayabillo, and lloró are also present. There is a great variety of orchids, bromeliads, and ferns. Due to its extension, the fauna is very scarce. All large and medium-sized mammals have been exterminated in the area. Common species include squirrels and armadillos. The most numerous vertebrate group is that of birds.
h. Montes de Oro Protected Zone It is located between the cantons of Montes de Oro, Puntarenas province, and San Ramón, Alajuela province. It has an extension of 1,820 ha and was created with the purpose of protecting several remnants of primary forest and aquifer recharge areas of great importance for the cities of Miramar and Puntarenas. It ranges from 800 m to 1,422 meters above sea level at Cerro Zapotal. The main economic activity is extensive livestock farming, which causes soil loss and deep gullies (cárcavas). As its name indicates, underground gold mining is practiced near the boundaries of the protected zone. In the lower parts, the climate is humid, hot, with a long dry season (more than 70 days with water deficit), while in the higher parts, the climate is humid and temperate, with a moderate dry season (Herrera, 1985). It is located on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Volcánica de Tilarán, which is a mountainous unit of low elevation. This mountain range is almost exclusively the product of Pliocene volcanic activity, whose deposits have been regrouped under the name of the Aguacate group or formation, which comprises a large series of effusive rocks. The majority of the volcanic centers have disappeared or are unrecognizable due to erosion (Bergoeing, 1998). The town of Miramar, located on the southwestern margin of the protected zone, is built on a thick cone of piedmont deposits that extends for more than 5 km from its point of origin, constituting a geological risk. The cone is incised on its flanks by two important rivers, Ciruelas and Naranjo. All these rivers are lined with a significant volume of rounded boulders. They are rivers of torrential regime (Bergoeing, 1998). It protects the springs of the Ciruelas and Naranjo rivers, as well as several tributaries of the Jabonal and Barranquilla rivers, which in turn are tributaries of the Barranca River. Due to high deforestation, this piedmont is heavily exposed to erosion. The present life zones are: Tropical humid forest transition to premontane and Very humid premontane forest. Shallow soils, with little development, dry for more than 90 days a year (lithosol). In some places, large rock outcrops occur. The soils have limitations as severe as slopes greater than 60%, shallow soils, medium to very low fertility, and susceptibility to erosion, meaning they can only be used for the protection of water, wildlife, and/or aesthetic purposes. The flora in the lower parts includes espavel (Anacardium excelsum), pochote (Bombacopsis quinata), guanacaste (Enterolobium cyclocarpum), jobo (Spondias mombin), pupumjoche (Plumeria rubra), muñeco (Cordia sp), indio desnudo (Bursera simarouba), raspaguacal (Curatella americana), nance (Byrsonima crassifolia), and roble de sabana (Tabebuia rosea). In the higher parts, aguacatillo (Ocotea sp., Nectandra sp.), oak (Quercus sp), níspero (Manilkara zapota), cirrí, ratoncillo, and tucuico are common. We find mammals such as: white-nosed coati (pizote, Nasua narica), common opossum (zorro pelón, Didelphis marsupialis), lowland paca (tepezcuintle, Agouti paca), Central American agouti (guatuza, Dasyprocta punctata), grison (grizón, Galictis allamandi), white-faced capuchin monkey (mono carablanca, Cebus capucinus), spider monkey (mono araña, Ateles geoffroyii), nine-banded armadillo (armadillo, Dasypus novemcintus), squirrels (ardillas, Sciurus sp), jaguarundi (león breñero, Herpailurus yagourundi), ocelot (manigordo, Leopardus pardalis), a great variety of wild mice, and bats. Reptiles include: black spiny-tailed iguanas (garrobos, Ctenosaura similis), basilisks, the boa constrictor (Boa constrictor), and the fer-de-lance (terciopelo, Bothrops asper). Notable birds include the emerald toucanet (tucancillo verde, Aulacorhynchus prassinus), Hoffmann's woodpecker (carpintero de Hoffman, Melanerpes hoffmanni), the long-tailed manakin (saltarín toledo, Chiroxiphia linearis), the three-wattled bellbird (pájaro campana, Procnias tricarunculata), the great kiskadee (mosquero pecho amarillo, Pitangus sulfuratus), the modest wren (soterrey, Thryothorus modestus), the clay-colored thrush (yigüirro, Turdus grayi), the black-faced solitaire (jilguero, Myadestes melanops), the orange-billed nightingale-thrush (jilguerillo, Catharus aurantirostris), the eastern meadowlark (zacatera, Sturnella magna), the scrub euphonia (finito, Euphonia affinis), the grassquit (gallito, Tiaris olivacea), the brown jay (urraca, Psilorhynus morio), the rufous-collared sparrow (comemaíz, Zonotrichia capensis), the swallow-tailed kite (tijereta, Elanoides forficatus), hawks (Buteo platipterus, Buteo magnirostris), and the crested guan (pava granadera, Penelope purpurascens).
i. Fernando Castro Cervantes National Wildlife Refuge It is located in the Turrubares canton, San José province, and directly borders the Cerros de Turrubares Protected Zone, with an extension of 1,613 ha. The lands are covered with thickets (tacotales) and secondary forests that were ceded by the IDA to be dedicated to forming a biological corridor between the Carara National Park and the Cerros de Turrubares Protected Zone. The climate is humid, very hot, with a long dry season (more than 70 days with water deficit) (Herrera, 1985). The soils are red, deep, low in bases, associated with soils with very little development and shallower, more developed soils. The soils are suitable for permanent semi-forest type crops, livestock farming, or forest use, and require careful management practices. In the higher parts, they are not suitable for agriculture or livestock farming. Because they are shallow soils on steep slopes, they have high susceptibility to erosion (OPSA, 1978). The Cerro Turrubares is a volcanic center probably contemporaneous with that of Aguacate, whose activity may have persisted until the Quaternary. The Turrubares cone reaches 1,756 meters above sea level and preserves outcrops of little-altered lavas (andesites) at its summit, proving its relative youth. Cerro de Turrubares dominates a vast depressed sector where the nearest summit rises only 700 m. The base of Cerro Turrubares is in contact with the Cretaceous rocks of the Nicoya Complex (tholeiitic basalts). These are terraced at the base of this old volcano, forming a plateau heavily dissected by rivers, which often adopt courses following fault alignments. The Tusubritos River, an important tributary of the Tusubres River, originates on the western piedmont of Turrubares and excavates its own middle course along a major northwest-southeast fault alignment, which extends into the Pacific as far as Puntarenas. The life zone is very humid tropical forest, transition to premontane (Tosi, 1969). Almost the entire area of the refuge is covered by secondary growth forests, so pioneer species are very common, such as balsa (Ochroma pyramidale), guarumo (Cecropia sp), guácimo (Guazuma ulmifolia), and gallinazo (Schyzolobium parahyba), among others. Notable fauna include the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), the collared peccary (sahino, Tayassu tajacu), the common armadillo (Dasypus novemcintus), the white-nosed coati (pizote, Nasua narica), the raccoon (mapache, Procyon lotor), and the white-faced capuchin monkey (Cebus capucinus). It is common to observe the scarlet macaw (lapa roja, Ara macao), the crested guan (pava, Penelope purpurascens), the black vulture (zopilote, Coragyps atratus), the turkey vulture (zonchiche, Cathartes aura), and several species of hawks. Common reptiles include the green iguana (Iguana iguana), the fer-de-lance snake (Bothrops asper), the boa constrictor (Boa constrictor), and the mussurana (zopilota, Clelia clelia).
j. Cerro de la Cangreja Protected Zone It is located in the Chires district, Puriscal canton, San José province, and protects the last remnant of primary forest in this canton. It has an extension of 1,861.31 ha and is characterized as a site of high biological diversity and endemism regarding flora. The site bears great resemblance to the forests of the Osa Peninsula, with a marked predominance of South American species. It has extremely rugged terrain, with slopes ranging from 30° to over 60°, and encompasses lands from 350 to 1,305 meters above sea level. The climate is very humid, hot, with a moderate dry season. The dry season runs from December to April, and the rainy season from May to November. The average annual precipitation and temperature are 3,435 mm and 27°C, respectively. The protected zone lies on rocks of the Nicoya Complex, where Cretaceous - Paleocene sedimentary rocks occur. It protects the basins of the Negro River and the Quebrada Grande, which are tributaries of the Grande de Candelaria River. Preliminary studies conducted up to 1993 have identified approximately 800 plant species. However, some of the most diverse groups, such as ferns, orchids, araceae, and bromeliads, have been little studied. Several endemic species or species with restricted distribution in the country have been identified; Plinia puriscalensis of the Myrtaceae family and Ayenia mastatalensis of the Sterculiaceae family have only been collected in this place. Some other species, such as Unonopsis theobromifolia, a custard apple (anonaceae), and Ternstroemia multiovulata, of the Theaceae family, were described for the country's flora in this protected zone, although they have subsequently been collected in other areas like the Osa Peninsula. In a study on floristic composition conducted in 1998 (Acosta, 1998), 193 tree species were identified, distributed across 126 genera and 56 families. Of the identified species, 84 are new reports for this protected area. There are also 17 species of timber trees heavily used commercially in Costa Rica, some of which are endangered, such as pellejo de toro (Tachigalia versicolor), ajo (Caryocar costaricense), quira (Caryodaphnopsis burgeri), guayacán (Tabebuia guayacan), ron rón (Astronium graveolens), nazareno (Peltogyne purpurea), cachimbo (Couratari guianensis), cristóbal (Platymiscium pinnatum), and bálsamo (Myroxylon balsamum). Notable fauna include the white-faced capuchin monkey (Cebus capucinus), the two-toed sloth (Choloepus hoffmanii), the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcintus), coyote (Canis latrans), raccoon (Procyon lotor), lowland paca (tepezcuintle, Agouti paca), white-nosed coati (pizote, Nasua narica), common opossum (zorro pelón, Didelphis marsupialis), jaguarundi (león breñero, Herpailuris yaguaroundi), margay (caucel, Leopardus felis), ocelot (manigordo, Leopardus pardalis), and a large number of bat species. Reported birds include the great tinamou (gallina de monte, Tinamus major), the three-wattled bellbird (pájaro campana, Procnidas tricarunculata), the chestnut-mandibled toucan (quióro or curré negro, Ramphastos swainsonii), the fiery-billed aracari (tucancillo, Pteroglosus frantzii), and several species of owls.
k. Cerros de Escazú Protected Zone It is located in the cantons of Escazú, Mora, and Aserrí, San José province. Due to the condition of its roads, it can only be traversed in four-wheel-drive vehicles, except in some places where one can only travel on horseback or on foot. Annual precipitation ranges between 2,000 and 3,000 mm, and its temperature varies approximately from 18 to 24°C. It is at an altitude between 1,000 and 2,000 meters above sea level. It originates from intrusive action forms and mass removal forms. The intrusive origin zone is predominant and originates from the Escazú massif. It is characterized by steep hillsides with rounded but steep water divides. Among the forms originated by mass removal, landslides occur at Alto Tapezco, located at the headwaters of the Uruca River. This is active and formed by highly weathered and wet rocks. The soils are shallow and poorly developed, with low base saturation, susceptible to erosion, and of low fertility. Several important tributaries of the Parrita and Grande de Tárcoles rivers originate in this protected area, providing drinking water to the main cities of southern San José, such as Escazú, Santa Ana, Aserrí, Mora, and Puriscal, as well as irrigation for small farms. The protected zone harbors some fragments of oak forests. At 1,800 and 1,900 meters above sea level, mixed lower montane oak forests are observed, suggesting some human intervention. They are co-dominated by woody taxa such as Ulmus mexicana (tirrá), Ardisia, Chusquea (bamboo), Clusia (copey), Croton, Quercus seemannii, Eugenia, Fucsia, Leandra, Lipia, Macleania, Miconia, Monnina, Monoocheatum, myrica, Myrcianthes sp., Oreopanax, Palicourea, Panopsis suaveolens, Suaveolens, Pasiflora spp., Podocarpus (cipresillo), Roupala, Sapium, Saurania, Smilax solanum, Styrax argenteus, and S. symplocos. They occur in association with ferns and herbs such as Adiantum, Orthrosanthus, Peperomia asplenium, Panicum, Polypodium, and Pteridium. The most common timber species are: roble de sabana, arrayan, jaúl, níspero, and iras. Fauna is scarce, with species such as martinillas, weasels, rabbits, white-nosed coatis (pizotes), purple pigeons, finches (jilgueros), coyotes, squirrels, and hummingbirds being found.
2.1.9. Tempisque Conservation Area a. Nosara Protected Zone This is a closed basin located between 400 and 882 meters above sea level, with rugged geomorphology and slopes that mostly exceed 40%. All these hillsides constitute infiltration zones with a large number of springs that form the hydrographic network of the Nosara River, which drains into the basin on its southeastern side. This river is the source of drinking water supply for the city of Hojancha, having great socioeconomic importance for the canton. Annual precipitation ranges between 1,900 and 2,200 mm per year, with two well-defined seasons, and an average temperature of 27°C. From the biophysical point of view, two life zones are present: Tropical humid forest and Very humid premontane forest. The transition zone between the two is fully identified in the area by the mix of tree species from both ecosystem types: Semi-deciduous forest and Evergreen forest. Regarding the existing vegetation, the lands that make up the protected zone have been largely subjected to a natural forest regeneration process, so most of the land is covered by natural forest, scrubland (charral), and small areas of primary forest. The most representative fauna of the area include: white-nosed coati (pizote), lowland paca (tepezcuintle), deer, howler monkey (mono congo), Central American agoutis (guatuzas), raccoons (mapachines), coyotes, foxes, and others. A very significant increase has been observed particularly in bird populations, with 126 species inventoried to date at the site.
b. Cerro de La Cruz and Cuenca del Río Potrero Protected Zone -Cerro de La Cruz Protected Zone It is located in the Nicoya canton, 1 km south of the Colonial city. It lies on the geological formation of the Nicoya Complex (tholeiitic basalts), and geomorphologically, the landscape is characterized by an elevation with topography marked by hillsides with slopes ranging from 40% to over 80%, and altitudes ranging from 180 to 419 meters above sea level. This hill is within the tropical humid forest zone. It has a rainy and dry tropical climate, characterized by a rainy season and a dry season, with an average annual precipitation of 2,200 mm and an average annual temperature of 27.1°C. Four streams originate in this area that flow into the Potrero River, the main source of drinking water for the city of Nicoya. The lands are primarily of forestry aptitude, deteriorated by agricultural and livestock use, and by forest fires. They are currently covered by pastures, cultivation areas, and a young secondary forest over most of their extension, with a predominance of pioneer species. The most common animal species are: white-tailed deer, howler monkey (mono congo), white-nosed coati (pizote), squirrel, gray fox, fox, raccoon, plain chachalaca (chachalaca), black vulture (zopilote), tijo, brown jay (urraca), pigeons, chocholpía, and other songbirds; reptiles such as garrobo, iguana, lizard, and snakes such as rattlesnake, coral snake, and boa. There is a great variety of insects not yet inventoried.
- Cuenca del Río Potrero The Cerro de La Cruz is part of the water divide of the Potrero River basin on the northern sector. This basin is located in the Nicoya canton, about 5 km south of the city. Several watercourses flow into the Potrero River, including the Curime River and the Maderal, Zompopa, Salitral, and Zapotillo streams. Geomorphologically, the area is characterized by an arc of mountain ridges formed by the hills La Cruz, Las Palmas, Zompopa, Molinillo, Fila Matambú, Varillal, and Grande, with slopes ranging from 40% to 80%. In the center of the arc lies a valley oriented from southwest to northeast, through which the Potrero River flows with slopes from 0% to 40%, before draining into the Grande River. In the mountain ridge that frames the basin, the soils are mainly of forestry and protection aptitude, affected by extensive livestock farming and fires. In the valley, the soils are flat, deep, and of agricultural aptitude; however, it must be verified whether, despite this, there are lands that due to present parameters require classification as protection. The hillside lands are covered with pastures and secondary forest in different stages of regeneration; the valley lands are mostly used for commercial annual crops such as melon, with other portions used for pasture, forest plantations, and forest nurseries. This area has a climate similar to that reported for Cerro de la Cruz, and the animal and plant species are the same.
c. Bosque Diriá National Wildlife Refuge The last primary forests that still covered the upper basins of the Tigre, En Medio, and Diriá rivers succumbed to the advance of colonization between 1950 and 1970. Today, only remnants of primary forests remain in the Verde River basin, bordering the Bosque Nacional Diriá, along with secondary forests, thickets (tacotales), and gallery forests along the Tigre River. The existing forest types in the area are: Tropical dry forest, Gallery forest, and Humid premontane forest. The refuge area is influenced by the rainfall regime of the Pacific Slope, which is characterized by 2 well-defined seasons. The dry season extends from early November until the second week of May. The rainy season begins in the second or third week of May and ends in November. Throughout the year, trade winds from the southeast to northeast predominate. They occur with greater intensity in the months of December to March. The mean annual temperatures vary due to the drastic changes in altitude; the average annual temperature ranges from 27.4°C on the alluvial plain south of Santa Cruz to 22.1°C on the mountain peaks. The refuge sits on eminently volcanic territory, consisting of basalts, basalt agglomerates, and pillow lavas (Bergoeing, et, 1983), belonging to the so-called Nicoya Complex, and sedimentary units (graywackes, ftanites, lutites, and siliceous limestones). Detailed soil studies have not been conducted in the region where the refuge is located, only at a preliminary level at a 1:200,000 scale. According to a study done in 1990, three main types of soil subgroups are found in the area: A) En Medio and Diriá river basins, Typic Haplustalf, associated with Typic Ustropet and Fluventic Ustropept; B) Middle and upper basin of the En Medio River, the main soil is Lithic Ustorthent, associated with Lithic Ustropept; C) Diriá River basin and the upper parts of the En Medio and Verde rivers, the main soil is the same Typic Haplustalf as the lower zone. It is characterized by being a mountainous territory with steep slopes, narrow ridges, and flat-bottomed, extremely stony rivers. On the slopes and ridges, due to the steepness of the gradient, the soils are not deep. This is because they have experienced an accelerated erosion process at the foot of the hills for more than 7,000 years, caused by climatological effects. It comprises territories in the upper and middle basins of the En Medio, Diriá, and Tigre rivers, whose flows converge near the city of Santa Cruz upon reaching the alluvial plain of the Tempisque, into which they drain their waters. In the Bosque Nacional Diriá and still in the surrounding area, despite the primary forests having been eliminated twenty to thirty years ago, the fauna, especially the birdlife, is abundant. More than 130 bird species have been identified. It is possible to find everything from howler and white-faced capuchin monkeys to felines in the most remote places.
d. Taboga Forest Reserve It comprises part of the territory located at the Colegio Universitario para el Riego y el Desarrollo del Trópico Seco and covers an area of 296 ha. It is located in the sole district of Cañas, sixth canton of the Guanacaste province, with access 10 km south of Cañas, on the Interamericana highway, and 9 km to the west. The reserve is within the tropical dry forest life zone, including diverse areas such as rocky hills and fertile gallery forest soils. It gathers around 170 species of tree and shrub vegetation and presents forest species of great value for their prized wood; among the most representative are: pochote (Bombacopsis quinata), cocobolo (Darbergia retusa), caoba (Swietenia macrophylla), and tempisque (Sideroxylon capiri). The predominant vegetation of the reserve can be classified as lowland forests (at 10 meters above sea level), including that of Cerro Escameka located at about (150 meters above sea level). In addition to the richness of vegetation, the reserve is home to a great variety of birds (approximately 121 species) and fauna (approximately 26 species), among the most representative being: violaceous trogon (Trogon violaceus), orange-fronted parakeet (perico frentinaranja, Aratinga caniculares), blue-crowned motmot (pájaro bobo, Eumomota superciliosa), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), coyote (Canis latrans), and white-faced capuchin monkey (Cebus capuccinus). The climate is hot and dry, with an average annual temperature of 27.5°C and an average annual precipitation that, over five (5) years, was 1,731.3 mm. It has a well-defined dry season, extending from November to April. Geologically, the reserve is constituted by materials from the Tertiary and Quaternary periods. From the Tertiary period, there are rocks of sedimentary and volcanic origin; from the Quaternary materials, there are rocks of volcanic and sedimentary origin, the volcanic ones corresponding to the Bagaces Formation (Pleistocene). The reserve has rugged topography, consisting of a set of high hills among which Cerro Escameka, with stony soil, and Cerro Campana, which is an old quarry, stand out. The fluvial system corresponds to the Pacific slope, belonging to the basins of the Bebedero and Abangares rivers. The former is drained by the river of the same name, which originates from the confluence of the Blanco and Tenorio rivers.
e. Península de Nicoya Protected Zone It consists of 24,448 ha, distributed in seven sectors located especially in areas with steeper slopes, less human presence, patches of forest, few infrastructure services, and low levels of satisfaction of health, education, and housing needs. The seven sectors that make up the protected zone are: A) Carmona Sector B) La Gloria Sector C) Lepanto Sector D) Cerro Pelón Sector E) Buena Vista Sector F) Cataratas Sector G) Cerital Sector. These sectors geologically have a tholeiitic basalt basement from the Nicoya Complex or sedimentary rocks from the Kurú formation. The average annual temperature of these hills is estimated at 26°C, and in the lowest part, it is 27°C. The amount of rain varies according to the location of the sectors; towards the north (Carmona) and towards the Golfo de Nicoya (La Gloria and Lepanto), there is more influence from the dry forest, so it rains less than 2,000 mm per year on average. However, as one travels south or towards the west and center of the peninsula (Buena Vista, Cerilla, and Cataratas), it rains up to almost 3,000 mm per year, which is the extreme amount of rain that falls around the Cabo Blanco Absolute Natural Reserve. Important plant species found include orchids (Cattleya skinneri, Oncidium sp, Sobralia sp, etc.), as well as trees with hardwoods of great beauty and reduced populations, such as níspero (Manilkara sp), cachimbo (Platymiscium sp), tempisque (Sideroxylon sp), ojoche (Brosimum sp), and ron ron (Astronium sp). Animals that can be highlighted include deer, Central American agoutis (guatusas), collared peccaries (sahinos), white-nosed coatis (pizotes), lowland pacas (tepezcuintles), margay (caucel), ocelot (manigordo), puma, white-faced capuchin monkey (Cebus capucinus), the neotropical otter or water dog (nutria o perro de agua, Lutra longicoudis), the Mexican hairy porcupine (puerco espín, Coendou mexicanus), the northern tamandua (oso hormiguero, Tamandua mexicanos), the kinkajou (martilla, Potos flavus), and the tayra (tolomuco, Eira barbara); and birds such as the king vulture (rey de los zopilotes, Sarcoramphus papa), the crested guan (pava crestada, Penelope purpurescens), the great curassow (pavón, Crax rubra), the white hawk (gavilán blanco, Leucopternis sp), the bellbird (guaco, Procnias sp), which migrates to the peninsula in the dry season, the tinamou (gallina de monte, Crypturellus sp), the spectacled owl (búho de anteojos, Pulsatrix sp), the manakin (toledo, Chiroxiphia sp), the euphonia (fino, Euphonia sp), and the honeycreeper (mielero patirrojo, Cyaneipes sp), among others.
2.2. LAND TENURE Below is information regarding land tenure for the wildland protected areas included in this study. It is broken down by state or private ownership, their area, and the percentage breakdown, both by management category and by conservation area.
Table 2 numerically describes the number of hectares included within the protective zones (zonas protectoras) category, showing that out of a total of 157,097 ha, only 11,132 ha are state-owned. It can also be mentioned that the conservation areas with the most protective zones are Pacífico Central with 10 and Cordillera Volcánica Central with 8.
Similarly, information for forest reserves (reservas forestales) and wildlife refuges (refugios de vida silvestre) is presented in tables 1 and 3, respectively. Regarding the former, out of a total of 282,660 ha, only 73,107 ha are state-owned, and in the case of wildlife refuges, out of 175,466 ha, a total of 103,722 ha are in private hands. It is important to note that some mixed national wildlife refuges and all private wildlife refuges were not considered in the evaluation within the Environmental Management Plan, as they were created by private initiative; in other words, the owners of the declared lands voluntarily submitted to this management category, and therefore are not subject to land purchase or expropriation by the State.
Table 1. Land Tenure Situation for Forest Reserves by Conservation Area.
(See Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001.)
Table 2. Land Tenure Situation for Protective Zones by Conservation Area. Costa Rica, Year 2000 (See Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001.)
Table 3. Land Tenure Situation for National Wildlife Refuges by Conservation Area. Costa Rica, Year 2000 (See Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001.)
Continuation Table 3 Land Tenure Situation for National Wildlife Refuges (See Alcance 34 de la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001.)
2.3. PRODUCTIVE ACTIVITIES The development of various activities on the private lands that currently form part of wildland protected areas has occurred, in most cases, since the last century; many of these took place when they had not yet been decreed as protected wildland areas. As a complement to the description provided in this section, these activities have been georeferenced on maps. Information providing a frame of reference to understand the situation in each conservation area is presented below.
2.3.1. Área de Conservación Cordillera Volcánica Central a. Zona protectora La Selva.
Due to the presence of the La Selva Biological Station of the OET, tourism is the most frequently developed activity. Most visitors come for research purposes, and many students also arrive. In the future, this station will be expanded. To date, and probably due to the characteristics of the rivers and streams in the protective zone, the existence of possible hydroelectric or other types of projects is unknown. No livestock or agricultural activities have been developed. There is a section of pipe from the Puerto Viejo aqueduct, approximately 700 m long, which crosses an area of pasture and forest plantations in the northeast sector of the Biological Station. Timber harvesting occurs illegally in some sectors of the upper part of the protective zone.
b. Reserva Forestal Cordillera Volcánica Central In the upper parts of the eastern sector of the reserve, there are small farms primarily dedicated to dairy farming and especially cheese production. These are livestock operations, formed with kikuyu grass, often combined with jaúl and roble encino trees. Occasionally, small farms are dedicated to planting potatoes and cabbage. Crops are planted using dirt paths that farmers have opened by hand, which hinders access and increased production. Generally, these are farms that have been exploited for many years under a subsistence production system, and therefore their expansion is relative. Mountain areas are heavily visited by hunters, who enter from both the north and the south, and also engage in the extraction of wild palmito sweet and wool. It is a very unprotected zone on the north side, where the famous picada a Guápiles is located, a place with difficult access for constantly carrying out surveillance actions. In the western sector, apart from agricultural activities such as coffee, chile, tomato, strawberry crops, and some vegetables, other non-traditional activities occur, such as ornamental plant production, forestry projects, hydroelectric projects, livestock farming, and even more recently, tourism. In the northern sector, a tourism development process is currently taking place, where the establishment of private infrastructure should be highlighted, aimed mainly at receiving ecotourism visitors. The intention of some landowners in the Cubujuqui area to establish a mountain hotel in that location is known. As for agriculture, it is overwhelmingly at a subsistence level; however, there are some commercial palmito and ornamental plant plantations. Livestock farming is extensive and is probably the most common land use in this sector. In this sector, the establishment of hydroelectric projects has proliferated, with three currently in operation and unofficial knowledge of at least five more projects in progress, which must meet the requirement of having their environmental impact assessment (estudio de impacto ambiental) approved before beginning construction. There are several private and public aqueducts; however, the aqueducts of Horquetas and Colonia Virgen del Socorro can be highlighted. Timber harvesting occurs in various places in the northern sector. Traditional crop agriculture occurs in the southern part of the reserve and east of the Volcán Irazú national park, basically products such as potatoes, carrots, cabbage, and onions, among others. There are several pasture areas dedicated to dairy farming along all the borders of the reserve, with some dairies. Approximately 22 towers for different communications media from across the country are installed, located on the Volcán Irazú. There are three water collection tanks located in the south of the reserve, on the Volcán Irazú and along its borders. To the east is the town of San Gerardo, and to the south is San Juan de Chicúa and la Pastora. There are several local and private roads, and the national highway connecting the province of Cartago with the Volcán Irazú. In the community of San Juan de Chicúa, there is a hotel approximately 10 km from the reserve. There are two private farms within the reserve that receive payment for environmental services (pago de servicios ambientales) for forest protection purposes.
c. Reserva Forestal Grecia In the reserve, the agricultural and livestock frontier is located approximately in a one-kilometer-wide strip that extends parallel to the western boundary, which is consequently the closest point to the populations of El Cajón, San Luis, San Miguel, San Francisco, San Isidro, and other rural communities; among the crops grown are coffee, sugarcane, and cattle farming. Within the reserve, there is a state-owned farm (el Bosque del Niño), where an Operations Center has been developed, which has also served as a recreational area, mainly visited by national tourists.
d. Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Bosque Alegre Approximately 20% of the area is under pasture use, with the remaining 80% being protection forest. It has tourism potential, which has not been exploited to date, except for some small attempts by locals.
e. Zona Protectora Río Tuis In a sector of the northeast and west parts, there are several smallholders, who are mainly dedicated to extensive subsistence livestock activity, since, due to terrain and climate conditions, the pastures are not very productive. Small planted areas of coffee and sugarcane are also observed. Part of the waters of the Río Tuis are being used for electricity generation through the Proyecto Hidroeléctrico del Río Tuis, whose generating plant is located on the periphery of the protective zone, but whose water supply is sourced within the upper river basin; monitoring its operation ensures the quality of the resource to be harnessed. Within the protective zone, only the houses of the farmers who own parcels of land are located. Three roads or dirt paths are located, which provide access to the agricultural/livestock farms.
f. Zona Protectora Río Toro The area is covered by approximately 80% natural forest, and 20% is used for pasture. The zone potentially has a future with tourism. This area is crossed by a paved road that is traveled year-round.
g. Zona Protectora Cerros de La Carpintera In the lower parts of the north, east, and south of this zone, there are pastures dedicated to cattle farming; in addition, some small areas have been used for small-scale home pig farming and coffee crops, the latter on small, scattered farms within the protective zone. There are transmission lines that cross a sector of this protected area, constituting an exit route for hydroelectric projects developed in the Río Reventazón basin. In a sector of the northern part of this protected area, the río Macho transmission lines cross with delta-type towers, 30 m high, and with an easement (servidumbre) of approximately 30 m on the ground, meaning the impact on vegetation is minimal. Unplanned urban development has occurred, especially in the parts surrounding the protection zones; some precarious settlements have also appeared, located in protection and high-risk zones, and there are storage warehouses for various products. There is the Albergue Istarú for scout camps and mountaineering practice. The aqueduct that is part of the Orosí project for supplying drinking water to the province of San José crosses the protective zone. A sector of the Río Azul landfill is located within this zone. To the south and along its boundaries, a silica extraction activity is being generated as raw material for glass manufacturing, with the risk that this quarry's exploitation will affect aquifer recharge areas. To the west, some clandestine quarries have been located that threaten the boundaries of the protective zone. There is a network of local and private roads that connect numerous properties in the protective zone. Within these properties, many trails and paths are located that facilitate access to certain places within the zone, as well as the national highway Cartago – San José. The protective zone is represented by different types of cover, namely: in the upper parts, intervened secondary forests, thickets (tacotales), and scrublands (charrales); in the lower parts, pastures with trees and grasses for livestock activities.
h. Zona Protectora Tiribí Several clandestine quarries for material extraction have been located on the boundaries of the protective zone, as well as river material extraction operations. Some owners have small pig farms; there is also dairy farming activity in the surroundings of the protective zone and some small-scale home poultry farms; approximately three farms have sheep. In the peripheral areas, there are greenhouses for ornamental plant production. There is a plant for electric power generation harnessing the area's water wealth, the Proyecto Hidroeléctrico Tiribí, along with networks and transmission lines. There is a drinking water aqueduct, with collection and potable water tanks supplying the hamlets of the San Ramón district. On the boundaries of the protective zone, activities such as urban development, squatter settlements (precarismo), illegal dumping, among others, take place. The national highway to San Ramón de Tres Ríos is located there; there are local and private roads; it should also be noted that there is a main access road to the protective zone. Extraction of epiphytic plants, and hunting of birds and small mammals have been detected.
i. Zona Protectora Cerros de Atenas Approximately 40% of the area is occupied by perennial crops, mainly coffee, 50% by pasture, 8% by secondary forest mainly in the protection zones of streams and a few forest blocks, and the remaining 2% by thickets. Due to the type of slopes, one of the activities in the zone is coffee cultivation, and it is planted on soils with forest vocation. The main activities are tourism and intensive livestock farming.
j. Zona Protectora El Chayote Agricultural and livestock activities take place, which have been carried out for approximately thirty years, before it was decreed a protective zone.
k. Zona Protectora Río Grande The zone has some areas of coffee, approximately 20%, 70% pasture, and 10% secondary forest and natural regeneration thickets. Regarding roads, there is the national route N° 35 and some internal roads used by farmers to transport their crops.
2.3.2. Área de Conservación Arenal Tilarán a. Zona Protectora Miravalles It is considered an area of absolute protection, where the topographical limitations mean that agricultural and livestock activities are carried out on a small scale in the surrounding areas. Outside the protected area, the Proyecto Geotérmico de Miravalles is developed, which is one of the activities currently booming.
b. Zona Protectora Tenorio It is considered part of the Parque Nacional Volcán Tenorio; agricultural activity is minimal. The vicinity is experiencing growing development of tourism activity. Near Tierras Morenas de Tilarán, the State, through its institutions (ICE), intends to develop the Proyecto Geotérmico Tenorio. There is a biological station for research purposes, which has had support from various institutions and investors. Agricultural activity is traditional, where the practice of covered bean cultivation, stick-planted corn, occurs especially in small areas with steep slopes. Both dairy and dual-purpose cattle farming is developed on a small scale.
c. Zona Protectora Arenal Monteverde It is mostly forest in a natural state, managed by the CCT and the Liga Conservacionista Monteverde, whose main activity is ecotourism and research. Tourism activity has increased on the boundaries of the area, especially for ecological purposes. There is a biological station for research purposes, which has had support from various institutions and investors.
d. Reserva Forestal Zona de Emergencia Volcán Arenal This is a small area located on the northern flank of Volcán Arenal, within the high-risk zone. Tourism activity has increased in the vicinity of the area. This type of activity is restricted for being within a high-risk area of Volcán Arenal.
2.3.3. Área de Conservación Arenal Huetar Norte a. Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Caño Negro Within the refuge, subsistence agriculture is practiced, mainly basic grains (rice, beans, and corn); however, that percentage within the area is not significant, approximately 1%. The opposite is observed with livestock farming, which occupies the non-forested part of the refuge, and during the dry season, particularly when the lagoon levels drop, grazing takes place on the plains. There is also a forestry project of native species supported by Amigos de la Tierra and the Proyecto Río San Juan. Sand is extracted from the banks (vegas) of the creeks (caños) and rivers for the construction of dwellings for the local inhabitants. There is a 1,500 m aqueduct that crosses part of the refuge, extending from the community of Las Cubas to El Sitio; likewise, an electric power line of the same length passes through. Regarding tourism activities in the community of Caño Negro, there are two hotels and three businesses with cabins. There are two micro-enterprises providing boat services for tourists, among others. There is a covered wooden dock about 64 m long. There are butterfly and turtle breeding farms (zoocriaderos); artisanal fishing also occurs in the lagoons and rivers. Some potential activities could be the implementation and cultivation of shrimp, gaspar fish, caimans, iguanas, piches, frogs of the genus Dendrobates and Hylla, ornamental fish, and tilapias, and the establishment of a Popular Artisan Center.
b. Reserva Forestal La Cureña In general terms, the socioeconomic environment is characterized by the predominance of agricultural and livestock activities, with two groups standing out: farmers and day laborers. Agriculture is subsistence-based, where basic grains (rice, beans, and corn) are planted. Hunting and flora extraction also occur.
c. Reserva Forestal Cerro El Jardín The agriculture practiced is subsistence-based (basic grains); social and economic development presents an extremely low level where productive activities are almost non-existent.
2.3.4. Área de Conservación Tortuguero a. Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Barra del Colorado Legal and illegal productive activities of various kinds take place. In the mining field, artisanal extraction of river sand occurs, which is generally used for housing construction. The most productive activity is tourism, mainly sport fishing, practiced mostly by foreigners. Local, national tourism is extremely limited and represents less than 10%, and it occurs in the northernmost sector and on the coast of the refuge. In the southern part, adjacent to the Parque Nacional Tortuguero, known as the Boca del Tortuguero, the tourism that takes place is naturalist-oriented. There is a terrestrial trail on Cerro Tortuguero, which is visited by an average of 90 people per day, and the aquatic trail called Caño Palma is frequented by foreigners arriving at Tortuguero, and 85% are nationals visiting the area. Traditional agriculture and cattle farming also occur. In the Community of Barra del Colorado, the rural aqueduct construction project is being developed, which will benefit the communities of Barra del Colorado Norte and Barra del Colorado Sur. In the refuge, remaining forest patches are scarce and subjected to timber harvesting. There is a national highway that crosses through the heart of the refuge (the road to Puerto Lindo) and several local roads that allow movement practically throughout the refuge. Within the core area of the refuge, residents of the bars use the Río Colorado and its tributaries (creeks and channels) for internal movement. Some of the creeks connect lagoons to each other, but in most cases, this connection is only possible in the rainiest months. There is an airport that is used by "charter" planes and small aircraft.
b. Zona Protectora Tortuguero These are private farms focused on agricultural development; tourism activity is minimal, with the occasional visitor arriving at the community of Palacios to enter the community of Tortuguero via Caño Chiquero, but mostly as through traffic. Agriculture is traditional, but the most developed activity is cattle farming. Banana cultivation and forest harvesting occur. It is worth noting that there are few exploitable forest patches. The company Tecnoforest S. A., based in the protective zone, has built primary roads for hauling forest products from its farms, which has allowed the establishment of small populations in the surroundings of its farms; consequently, human settlements have been growing, and through municipal efforts, they have obtained financing for opening roads and trails. The remaining forest is of secondary growth. Currently, integrated natural forest management activities are being developed in the buffer zone, involving the use of sub-products such as seeds, lianas, vines (bejucos), and certain ornamental plant species. Both legal and illegal hunting occurs, as well as illegal flora extraction, mainly of the rangallo vine or uña de gato, for its medicinal healing value.
c. Zona Protectora Acuíferos Guácimo - Pococí The main activities revolve around agriculture and livestock, where small-scale farm animal raising, cattle, and traditional agriculture at a local subsistence level stand out. Tourism activity is incipient in this protective zone, where some local residents are building basic lodging infrastructure (cabins). There are farms that benefit from forest incentives and payment for environmental services for forest protection.
2.3.5. Área de Conservación La Amistad Caribe a. Reserva Forestal Pacuare - Matina The zone where this forest reserve is located is characterized as an area with high potential for the development of tourism activities. Just a few kilometers from the reserve and all along the channels that run through its southern sector, which in turn connect with other watercourses inside this protected area, there is a whole development of hotel infrastructure offering guided tour services, boat and kayak navigation, meals, souvenir sales, among others. There is also a biological station in the reserve that functions simultaneously as lodging for some park rangers who guard the site, a series of trails (aquatic - terrestrial), and a small dock, which are among other pieces of infrastructure operating in the zone.
b. Reserva Forestal Río Pacuare In the adjacent zones, there is a series of urban sites; the area is subjected to an accelerated process of natural resource utilization by the different landholders and other groups who hold its use in different forms. The presence of a large quantity of rivers and streams endows the zone with great potential for supplying water to all the communities settled on the slopes of this important area, aside from its hydrological importance regarding its great potential for future hydroelectric projects, among which the Proyecto Ventanas can be mentioned. On the other hand, the area is partly crossed by electric transmission lines in its northwest sector. In the vicinity where this hydroelectric project will be built, there is a material extraction area (quarry - tajo) that constitutes an important stone quarry for the zone. The Río Pacuare forest reserve corresponds to a predominantly rural area, where its inhabitants are almost exclusively dedicated to agricultural and livestock activities, among which an agriculture developed on very small holdings can be mentioned. Livestock farming plays a purely local role, as it is limited to small herds very dispersed from one another within the area of interest, and in most cases, one or two specimens per farm, or none at all. Livestock farming is associated with the keeping of equines, but in most dwellings, it constitutes an important means of transport, which is why it is common to observe these and the presence of pigs, small poultry farms, and in some cases, native species nurseries and breeding farms, among others. The western part of the area is drained by the Pacuare riverbed, which constitutes an important means of transport for locals, but mainly for exploitation by tourism companies that commercialize the river rapids with tourists who enjoy river sports in inflatable boats. Along the course of this river, there is an entire infrastructure for serving these groups of tourists who enjoy this sport, which is combined with the existence of trails and a whole network of roads that crisscross the entire area. There are some camps (Las Huacas) on farms in the zone and two biological stations at the level of the hamlet of Las Brisas. In the lower and middle part of the area, there are some forest plantations in production (eucalyptus, mainly), and in the upper parts, there is extraction and/or harvesting of the forest that dates back many years, being perhaps the part of the area that has best conserved the forest. On the other hand, flora extraction and poaching are very notorious throughout the area, mainly in the lower parts (south) where population centers are located on the periphery of the boundaries of this forest reserve.
c. Zona Protectora Río Banano It is an area of enormous hydrological value for its high water production potential, as the average minimum flow exceeds the consumption demanded by the city of Limón. Its potential has led some companies to be interested in investing in hydroelectric projects in this area, very specifically at the confluence of the ríos Segundo, Tercero, and Banano. The nearest population center is Asunción, which has a dispersed hamlet. Its inhabitants are dedicated to purely agricultural activities using very rudimentary (traditional) techniques for the production of basic grains and others (banana, corn, yucca, beans, among others). The forested area is rationally used by the different groups holding the land. Other (furtive) activities such as hunting, flora extraction, and others (Canabis sativa) have been reported in this zone.
d. Zona Protectora Cuenca del Río Siquirres:
Being a protective zone near a series of hamlets (Moravia, Guayacán, Coco, others), it is subjected to a certain degree of deterioration of its physical resources through different land uses and the degree of conflict existing between them. Precisely on the periphery of this protected area, human intrusion is noticeable with a series of activities (development) that largely encompass the advance of the agricultural and urban frontier of the zone. On its western side, there are ICE electric transmission lines and the passage of a RECOPE oil pipeline. Only a small portion of farm holders carry out traditional agricultural activities, and within this area, there is one (small) livestock farm, with porcine, equine, and poultry species found at every house, but in a very dispersed manner. From the middle basin to the lower part and the entire eastern sector of this area, it is under a eucalyptus reforestation project. In this part of the protective zone, there are some nurseries and constant use and/or harvesting of the cultivated species. The upper part of this zone shows harvesting carried out in the past, where the vegetation is composed partly of secondary forest and some scrublands. In this sector of the zone, certain poaching practices and flora extraction are perceived.
e. Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Gandoca - Manzanillo Its condition as a mixed-use management area, where a series of social and economic interests converge, means that this refuge is one of the protected areas where private property and its possessors seek to obtain the maximum benefit from their possessions or investments, which is evident in a hotel development that provides all services (sport fishing, diving, boating, tours, ecotourism, horseback riding, among others), housing development, road infrastructure, etc. In general, throughout almost the entire area it is possible to find traditional use in agricultural practices (corn, beans, etc.), the keeping of animals such as pigs, chickens, and in a few places, cattle. Forestry use is not very significant; however, some (isolated) permits are granted for its use. Some other potential resources of the area, such as quarries (tajos) in the Punta Uva sector, are not exploited.
f. Limoncito National Wildlife Refuge Due to its location and its management condition, this area has remained somewhat outside the occupation processes that have affected other areas of the country. The northern and southern sector currently has a precarious occupation of about thirty-five families, who engage in traditional agricultural practices for family consumption (corn, beans, rice, yucca, plantain, among others). The keeping of domestic animals such as pigs, chickens, cows, and horses is very common in this area. Throughout the entire refuge, it is possible to find a series of paths and trails; the highway (32) that leads from Limón to Sixaola runs along its northern front, and the southern, eastern, and western sides of this protected area also have roads. The Limoncito wetland area holds a rich biodiversity and constitutes today a valuable heritage for the province of Limón, hence its high and rich potential for development and conservation for future generations.
2.3.6. La Amistad Pacífico Conservation Area a. Las Tablas Protective Zone In the protective zone, there are crops of coffee, apple, peach, avocado, corn, and trout. There are some pasture areas for dairy and beef cattle, mainly in the sites of Tablas, Coto Brus, and Cotoncito. In the dry season, visitation by national tourism occurs at the Tablas Site, where cabins for private use are located. Also, mountain motocross occurs in the dry season, as well as scientific tourism. There is an important aqueduct managed by A y A that benefits the communities of Sabalito and San Vito. Additionally, there is a quarry (tajo) in the place known as Cerro Pelón, north of the río Negro.
b. Río Sombrero and Navarro Protective Zone There are cabuya plantations, which in recent years have been replaced by crops of blackberry, naranjilla (1 to 2 ha), vegetables (sweet pepper and tomato). Some small-scale coffee plantations exist in Navarro. Cattle ranching has been increasing as the cabuya disappears, mainly for dairy cattle ranging from 5 to 50 ha. In the area, there are two quarries (tajos), La Estrella and La Luchita, currently closed. Regarding tourism, there are cabin and restaurant services in the sector of the Carretera Interamericana. Cypress plantations have been established with areas of 100 to 300 ha. Charcoal is also exploited through illegal logging. There is a small sawmill for processing cypress wood with smaller diameters in the Palo Verde sector. The construction of an aqueduct by the Municipality of Cartago for the río Sombrero is in the project phase. In the place known as La Estrella, there is a garbage dump.
c. Río Macho Forest Reserve In the area, crops of potato, cabbage, blackberry, various vegetables, and flowers are produced. There are small dairies on small to medium-scale farms, from 5 to 20 ha, and collection centers for blackberry use. In the reserve, there is a hotel; in the Empalme sector, La Esperanza, Ojo de Agua, Km 70, Villa Mills, there are two Biological Stations and two lodges for tourism and researchers. Previously, oak was exploited for barrels; currently, illegal wood extraction for charcoal production occurs. Located in this reserve are 2 electrical transmission lines that supply energy to the southern part of the country, and in the place known as Jaboncillos on the Carretera Interamericana, there is a quarry (tajo). Also found in this reserve is the ICE's río Macho hydroelectric project. Regarding aqueducts, there is the Orosi aqueduct, managed by AyA, generating 19,000 liters per second to benefit some 870,000 inhabitants in the GAM.
2.3.7. Osa Conservation Area a. Golfito National Wildlife Refuge Few productive activities are developed, the main one being tourism towards the south of the refuge. Additionally, there are some areas of traditional subsistence agricultural crops and specifically one farm with cattle.
b. Golfo Dulce Forest Reserve Several productive activities are developed in this reserve, the main one being forest harvesting (aprovechamiento forestal). Within the reserve, there are melina plantations and small areas of teak, pochote, and pine. Another activity that is gaining momentum is the establishment of private wildlife refuges, among which the Carate, Pejeperro, Osa, Marenco wildlife refuges, among others, are cited. Tourism activity is also developed, which is influenced by the human activity taking place in nearby towns such as Drake, Carate, Carbonera, and Cerro de Oro. Additionally, there are several biological stations in the area. Added to this, small-scale tourism activities are being carried out. There are small communities within this reserve, such as: San Juan de Sierre, Santa Cecilia, Rancho Quemado, Miramar, and La Balsa. There are areas of traditional subsistence agriculture and cattle ranching, both pig and cattle, in an extensive manner. Furthermore, there are transmission towers in various sites within the reserve.
2.3.8. Pacífico Central Conservation Area a. Caraigres Protective Zone The main productive activity is extensive cattle ranching. In the La Legua sector, there are coffee crops, with an organic coffee processing plant. A water intake for the La Legua rural aqueduct is located there. In the Hacienda Tiquires sector, there are cattle farms and some forest plantations, especially cypress. In the surroundings of the protective zone, the construction of electrical generation and transmission works is being planned.
b. El Rodeo Protective Zone The majority of the protective zone was used until a few years ago for beef cattle ranching. Currently, many of the pastures have been replaced by secondary growth forests. In the higher parts, extensive cattle ranching still persists on highly eroded soils, often with large gullies (cárcavas). The main agricultural activity is bean production, although coffee is also cultivated. On a property immersed within the protective zone, the University for Peace operates, attracting students from various parts of the world.
c. Tivives Protective Zone The current limits of the protective zone include three urban areas: Mata de Limón, Cambalache, and Salinas II, which have basic services such as electricity, telephone, and potable water, and in the first case, paved roads. Additionally, it includes part of the infrastructure related to the operation of the Port of Caldera, such as Customs Agencies, container yards, and storage facilities for chemical products. In Mata de Limón, infrastructure for tourism services has been developed, such as restaurants, bars, small hotels, and docks for speedboats. In the agricultural field, the main productive activity is beef cattle ranching. Other activities include traditional corn and bean agriculture. The Alto de las Mesas Sector and the Tivives Mangrove Sector have potential for recreational tourism development at the national level, being able to provide basic services such as natural trails, elevated walkways in the mangrove, lunch and camping areas; and horseback and boat rides through the estuaries (esteros). The construction of an Environmental Education and Training Center on Cerro Alto de las Mesas is also planned.
d. Los Santos Forest Reserve In the upper basin of the río Providencia, cattle ranching has been replaced by the production of apples, trout, and naturalist tourism services. Some companies currently develop adventure tourism, promoting long walks from 3,400 meters above sea level on Cerro Buenavista or the Cerro Vueltas Biological Reserve, down to the coast. The success of ecotourism in the high areas is attributed to the presence of the quetzal, still visible in the fragments of oak forests (robledales). Some families still dedicate themselves to charcoal production. In the Los Santos region, blackberry, apples, plums, and some vegetables such as cabbage and carrot are also produced. The majority of farms produce 2 to 4 agricultural products. Cattle farms maintain between 4 and 32 head of cattle, dedicated to milk and cheese production. In Santa María and Providencia de Dota, coffee production has recently boomed, invading forest-covered lands that are highly susceptible to erosion. In the río División basin, the situation is alarming; coffee is planted on hillsides with slopes of more than 50%, causing gullies (cárcavas), landslides, and river damming.
e. Cerro Nara Protective Zone The main productive activities are dual-purpose cattle ranching and traditional agriculture. The lack of highways or gravel roads makes it difficult to extract products to the market, so production is for self-consumption. The only infrastructure in the area consists of dwelling houses and a rural school.
f. Cerros de Turrubares Protective Zone Although at the time of the protective zone's creation, more than 70% of the surface was covered with pastures and subsistence agricultural crops such as yucca, plantain, and beans (Garita, D. 1989), currently this condition has been reversed, such that more than 75% is covered with secondary forests. In the highest parts, some pastures and farms dedicated to forest protection or reforestation still exist. Within the protective zone, there is a 100 ha farm, owned by the Municipality of Orotina, where the water intake for the municipal aqueduct is located.
g. El Rosario Protective Zone The farm is covered by intervened forest. In the past five years, a permit for forest exploitation was granted, which had to be suspended due to pressure from the community in defense of the aqueduct.
h. Montes de Oro Protective Zone In the surroundings of the towns of Peñas Blancas and Rincón Chaves, the largest areas consist of repastures and paddocks, mainly of jaragua and African star grass. Forests appear as fragments. Most of the roads are for double-traction vehicles. Parcels of coffee and fallow land for traditional corn and bean agriculture are also located there. In the upper basin of the río Jabonal, a dairy module is located, implemented with financing from international cooperation.
i. Fernando Castro Cervantes National Wildlife Refuge The sole occupant of the Refuge is dedicated to beef cattle ranching and bean cultivation on steep hillsides. There is a road that crosses the Refuge, but due to soil instability and the lack of bridges over the rivers, it is not passable by vehicle during the rainy season. Transportation to the towns of Surtubal and El Sur is done on horseback. The ICE is currently conducting topographic studies for the development of a project that contemplates the construction of an Interconnected Electrical System for the countries of Central America (SIEPAC), which would cross part of the refuge.
j. Cerro de la Cangreja Protective Zone More than 85% of the protective zone is covered by primary and secondary forests. The only productive activities are cattle ranching and subsistence agriculture. The main crops are corn and beans. During the last three years, some harvesting permits were granted for fallen trees. A 356 ha farm, equivalent to 19% of the protective zone's area, receives incentives for forest protection. Occasionally, local residents practice illegal hunting for recreational purposes, especially the hunting of paca (tepezcuintle) and the capture of songbirds. Local organizations seek to develop an environmental education project on a property they own, located on the periphery of the protective zone. Basically, the project consists of building an Environmental Education Center to bring student groups to the protective zone, using existing trails to raise their awareness through guided walks, discussion forums, talks, and workshops about the importance of the sustainable use of natural resources and the importance of their protection. It is also used as a natural laboratory for dendrology courses and the preparation of undergraduate theses for students in the forestry engineering program at the Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica. Within the limits of the protective zone is a water intake for the aqueduct of the communities of Mastatal, Concepción, and San Martín.
k. Cerros de Escazú Protective Zone In general, the natural flora is highly altered by agricultural and livestock use, although currently, reforestation activities with pine, cypress, and eucalyptus are being carried out.
2.3.9. Tempisque Conservation Area a. Nosara Protective Zone There are limitations for production, given that most of the land is located on slopes greater than 45%. Nonetheless, agricultural activities are developed, which are the economic base for the sector's inhabitants, such as the cultivation of basic grains, coffee growing, and vegetable cultivation for commercial purposes. The latter is of great importance for a considerable number of small farmers who depend on vegetable cultivation (especially sweet pepper and tomato) for the maintenance of their families. The products are marketed at the farmers' fairs of Nicoya and Santa Cruz. Extensive cattle ranching also occurs on a smaller scale, on those lands within the protective zone that are still covered with pastures. In recent years, with the creation of infrastructure for public use within the Monte Alto Forest Reserve (located within the Nosara protective zone), ecotourism has begun to develop as a socioeconomic alternative with great potential, given the attractions the forest reserve holds for ornithologists, students, researchers, and the general public. This has allowed the generation of job opportunities. Timber activities are carried out, coming from agroforestry systems and small stands of forest plantations (teak and melina), located in the sectors with lesser slopes. It is important to mention that within the protective zone, several springs (nacientes) are used for the distribution of potable water through the aqueducts of the communities of Pilangosta and Hojancha, providing this service to a population of approximately 3,500 people. A local organization carries out efforts in environmental education, land purchase, relocation of producers to more productive lands, and development of socioeconomic alternatives such as ecotourism.
b. Cerro de La Cruz and Cuenca del Río Potrero Protective Zone For both the protective zone and the basin, in the hills, the main productive activities are extensive cattle ranching, subsistence basic grain agriculture, forest production (intensive and extensive), and quarry (tajos) exploitation. These areas have tourism potential not only from a biological and landscape standpoint but also religious and cultural. Furthermore, these hills fulfill an important function as a natural lung and water producers for human consumption.
c. Mata Redonda and Associated Wetlands National Wildlife Refuge In the lagoon areas, the water surface is used as a drinking trough and feed source for cattle and pigs, fishing, extraction of mollusks (clam and piangua), rice cultivation, salt production, aquaculture, and ecological tourism on a smaller scale. The OET is supporting studies to promote the raising of mollusks in ponds or within the mangroves. It is necessary to reorient some of these practices and organize and enhance options such as ecological tourism in the wetlands.
d. Bosque Diriá National Wildlife Refuge Attractions have been identified both within the refuge and in its surroundings, which allow tourism activities to be developed such as: visits to trails, waterfalls, and beaches. There is a biological station, which has infrastructure with the capacity to provide lodging service for 25 people. Among the potential activities: A) Visits to coffee and vegetable plantations in the communities of Vista al Mar and Los Angeles, where products such as tomato, cabbage, cucumber, chili pepper, and coffee are cultivated, in addition to admiring the scenic beauty these places offer. B) Bicycle tours from Santa Cruz to Bosque Diriá and from there to Vista al Mar. C) Horseback rides are an option for tourists visiting this area. D) Visitor center that offers information to the visitor. E) Sale of food services, which can be offered by community groups.
2.4. PROBLEM OVERVIEW 2.4.1. Cordillera Volcánica Central Conservation Area a. La Selva Protective Zone.
In the case of tourism, this activity does not currently represent a serious problem for the management of the protective zone; it mainly takes place within the Biological Station. However, it should be considered that in the future, there may be development of private refuges, lodges, and others in its vicinity due to the biological and scenic richness of this sector. In the case of forest harvesting (aprovechamientos forestales), which is illegal and on a very small scale, it is considered that it currently does not represent a serious problem for the management of this protected area, taking into consideration the access problems to the upper part of the protective zone and that in the short term, there is no evidence of the possibility of improving or building roads in this sector.
b. Cordillera Volcánica Central Forest Reserve One of the problems in the eastern sector is illegal hunting; hunters enter mainly through the north, on the picada de Guápiles, through the hamlets of San Valentín. Another sector with difficult access is Bajos de Bonilla, La Roca, El Destierro; many times, entry by vehicle is impossible, and dangerous rivers must be crossed, so patrol visits must be carried out during the summer. During the winter, control is done through fixed posts on the highway, on the access roads to the mentioned places. Another problem is the extraction of wild palm heart (palmito silvestre), which occurs at certain times of the year, especially during Holy Week and year-end. Complaints generally come from farmers who report irrational exploitation to the subregional office; with this information, confiscations have been made in the hamlets of Bajo Bonilla and the picada de Guápiles. Among the problems presented in the central sector, the most frequent in the study area are: A) Illegal bird hunting, disrespect for closed seasons, illegal trade in flora and fauna (trafficking), extraction of forest by-products (lana, plants, palm heart). B) Illegal tree felling in protection areas and in natural forest; regarding protection areas, this problem is mainly caused by ignorance of the legal regulations. C) Obstruction of surface water channels, construction of walls and gabions within riverbeds, diversion or usurpation of water, drilling and exploitation of groundwater. In protection areas, there are earthworks (movimientos de suelos), vegetation removal and tree cutting, constructions (houses, roads, fences, walls), poor solid waste management (spontaneous dumps). In the northern sector, the following problems are present: A) Tourism activity does not represent a serious problem for the management of the northern sector of the refuge; however, future development in this sense should be expected in the area. B) Agriculture and cattle ranching activities. C) It is a strategic point for the development of hydroelectric projects due to its water potential. D) High potential for the establishment of aqueducts to supply neighboring communities. Existing projects, such as that of the community of Horquetas, view with concern the strong pressure being exerted on the forest resource in the area, which could lead to future supply problems. E) Control of forest harvesting activities. In the central sector of the reserve, the following problems occur: Inadequate soil use due to cattle ranching and agriculture, due to previous agrarian policies. Pressure from agricultural expansion, a product of a lack of inter-institutional integration. Water contamination (solid and liquid waste) and sedimentation, due to the development models adopted. Clandestine dumps, due to lack of control. Hunting of birds and mammals. Quarry (tajos) exploitation. Extraction of flora (palm heart, orchids, among others). Use of agroforestry systems without control. Deterioration of protection zones (rivers, springs (nacientes), and streams).
c. Grecia Forest Reserve The area of the reserve is about 2,000 ha, of which the State owns 10% (200 ha); this surface is divided into five farms distributed throughout the reserve, the rest of the area is located on private farms. In the last five years, a problem has been emerging related to the proliferation of uncontrolled constructions, rustic cabins, among others, for vacationing. This has favored the repair of the public road that crosses the reserve in a northeast and southeast direction and connects the town of Grecia with the Volcán Poás National Park. Another important aspect to mention is the illegal grazing that some cattle owners and neighbors carry out on State farms, specifically in the Cajón sector. However, on this matter, the necessary measures are already being taken to proceed under current legislation. There are also problems of hunting, plant extraction, and lana extraction.
d. Bosque Alegre National Wildlife Refuge There are problems of entry to the Lagoons with motor vehicles; additionally, indiscriminate fishing and hunting occur. The lack of operating resources and the low awareness of the locals about the protection of the area's natural resources are other problems.
e. Río Tuis Protective Zone The main problems are illegal hunting, facilitated by access to forested areas due to the existence of the trails or roads that the plot holders have built to reach their farms. This allows the presence of area residents who take advantage of such large and difficult-to-traverse territory to enter the mountain and exit via the paths that connect to towns like La Suiza, Tuis, and La Esperanza, so as to very easily evade the authorities' control. Squatting (precarismo) is a serious problem that has affected the forest ecosystems of the protective zone, presenting, in some cases, land usurpation from owners who hold title deeds.
f. Río Toro Protective Zone The entirety of the protective zone is located on private properties, and the main problem is the lack of surveillance by the State, since the ease of access allows the entry of some hunters and bird captors throughout the year.
g. Cerros de La Carpintera Protective Zone:
The problems presented by the protective zone are detailed below: · Invasion of land, a product of the demographic growth of the areas adjacent to the protective zone. · Legal and illegal mining exploitation. · Sanitary landfill. · Clandestine garbage dumps. · Inadequate soil use in agricultural activities (slopes greater than 50%). · Expansion of new and old settlements, due to a lack of adequate urban planning. · Power lines. · Illegal extraction of flora. · Illegal hunting of wildlife. · Land tenure.
h. Tiribí Protective Zone The main problems present in the Tiribí protective zone are detailed below: · Contamination of surface and groundwater. · Hunting of birds and mammals. · Extraction of flora. · Spontaneous dumps. · Inadequate soil use for cattle ranching. · Pressure from the expansion of urban settlements. · Land tenure problem, because approximately 60% of the protective zone is in private hands.
i. Cerros de Atenas Protective Zone Cattle ranching is one of the activities that causes deterioration to the protective zone. Additionally, the protective zone is crossed by an electrical transmission line, in an east-west direction.
j. El Chayote Protective Zone Due to the limited protection carried out in the area, there are problems mainly of mammal and bird hunting. There is also contamination of surface water resulting from agricultural activities.
k. Río Grande Protective Zone In the summer season, some fires occasionally occur in the Santa Eulalia and Alto López sector; and hunting is carried out at certain times of the year. 4.4.2. Arenal Tilarán Conservation Area The main problem in the protective zones and the forest reserve is the pressure for land-use change (cambio del uso) from forest to pasture, through the practice of clearing the understory, followed by the illegal extraction of timber-yielding trees and illegal hunting.
2.4.2 Arenal Tilarán Conservation Area.
a. Miravalles Protective Zone One of the problems is the land-use change from natural forest to pasture within the IDA settlement located in the protective zone. Additionally, illegal hunting activities are carried out that constantly threaten the existing fauna.
b. Tenorio Protective Zone There are squatting (precarismo) problems in the forest areas of the IDA settlements. Illegal hunting is another problem that threatens the wildlife richness of this protective zone.
2.4.3. Arenal Huetar - Norte Conservation Area a. Caño Negro National Wildlife Refuge The biggest problem of the refuge is the siltation (colmatación) of the lagoons and channels (caños) due to the poor management of the upper and middle basin, and the dragging of sediments by the río Frío. It is necessary to properly manage the upper and middle basin to prevent deforestation and promote reforestation of the riverbanks, and to reduce water contamination by biocides, which are poisoned by the indiscriminate use of agrochemicals in crops, mainly rice. Forest fires, which have been increasing in recent years, threaten the destruction of unique ecosystems, such as the marillales and the fauna in general; for this, it is necessary to reinforce, train, and better equip the fire-fighting brigades in the region. Poaching of caiman and mammal species is a constant threat to the populations of these animals. Illegal fishing with chinchorro nets and cast nets (atarrayas) during closed season is constant. There are water buffalo introduced within the refuge.
b. La Cureña Forest Reserve The main problems affecting the biodiversity and stability of the forests and wetlands of this area are: land-use change (cambio de uso de la tierra), tree cutting, agriculture or livestock farming on forest soils, increasing leaching and erosion, all to the detriment of wetlands, yolillales, and lagoons that have lost their protective forest. This is compounded by poor forest management practices, such as roads and trails, oversized works, and the use of heavy equipment that destroys everything in its path. The low level of education of the rural inhabitants of the area, low income, and poor health make it conducive to all types of illegal activities such as poaching, illegal logging, and sale of wild species as pets.
c. Cerro El Jardín Forest Reserve Poor forest management practices, destruction of the carrying capacity of forests, short-term use of the forest, instead of promoting sustainable use, promote forest degradation and illegal land-use change (cambio de uso del suelo), with the consequent destruction of biodiversity and their stability; it is also increased by inadequate control and supervision of management plans. The use of equipment unsuitable for these areas causes the destruction of a large number of species that are not timber-yielding but have great value as biodiversity. The scarce inhabitants of that area have a low level of education, economic income is very low, and the level of health is very poor, which encourages the use of wildlife as a source of food and sale as pets.
2.4.4. Tortuguero Conservation Area a. Barra del Colorado National Wildlife Refuge Licensed and unlicensed hunting, and artisanal and sport fishing are practiced. In a sector further north, there is a serious problem of squatting and land tenure.
b. Acuíferos de Pococí y Guácimo Protective Zone There is pressure due to the extraction and irrational exploitation of forest products and by-products. In addition, illegal hunting occurs.
2.4.5. La Amistad Caribe Conservation Area a. Pacuare - Matina Forest Reserve Historical conditions that caused the arrival of migrants (sambos mosquitos (Colonial era)) and later settlers from Cartago, who arrived in the area to barter products with foreign English and Dutch, are combined with the migration (Republican era) of the black population that arrived on these Caribbean coasts and the important role they played in the construction of the railroad. The current problems of the region are also a product of the cultural integration of recent populations into the regional context and their lack of knowledge about the importance of biodiversity. There is illegal extraction of flora, coupled with hunting of turtles and other species.
b. Río Pacuare Forest Reserve Opening of a series of access roads (including a main road to the community of Las Brisas de Pacuarito) and/or trails that have allowed entry throughout the area and, with it, an accelerated advance of the agricultural frontier.
c. Cuenca del Río Banano Protective Zone Accelerated population growth in the middle basin of the Banano River and its advance towards the upper parts of the protective zone. Disorderly settlement and invasion of private lands, as well as irregularities in the registration of farms, illegal possessions, and overlaps between farms. In addition, illegal extraction of flora and fauna.
d. Cuenca del Río Siquirres Protective Zone The proximity to population centers such as Siquirres, El Coco, Moravia, Guayacán, and its immediacy to the highway that leads from the Siquirres community to the Canton of Turrialba, becomes a threat to this protective zone.
e. Gandoca - Manzanillo National Wildlife Refuge.
As approximately 85% is in private hands, the pressure for its use to obtain investment benefits is very strong. It makes it difficult to control the extraction of flora and illegal hunting, as well as the extraction of turtle eggs during the arrival season.
f. Limoncito National Wildlife Refuge There is pressure for the use of the natural resources present in this protective zone, as a large part is in private hands.
2.4.6. La Amistad Pacífico Conservation Area a. Las Tablas Protective Zone The main problem is related to the passage of farmers through border territories (road to Sitio Tablas), presenting hunting problems. The expansion of the agricultural frontier constitutes one of the main threats. To the above must be added problems of land tenure in the border mile, illegal deforestation, looting of archaeological sites, and forest fires.
b. Río Sombrero y Río Navarro Protective Zone The socioeconomic problem is difficult to manage. However, some residents are being forced to change their agricultural activity due to marketing problems. In addition, there are illegal garbage dumps. Affecting the natural resource, there is major and minor hunting, of sahinos, cabro, tepezcuintle, hunting of the collareja pigeon, songbirds and plumage birds; extraction of bejuco, lana (moss), agricultural burning, illegal exploitation of wood for charcoal. As a consequence of livestock activities, soil degradation has occurred. Also, contamination problems arise from the use of chemicals in crops, the washing of cabuya, and fern plantations.
c. Río Macho Forest Reserve In the upper parts, the lack of employment, better living conditions, lack of land for young families, and lack of training induce strong pressure on the existing natural resources. The following problems also occur: low soil fertility, climatic conditions, steep slopes, lack of extension and research services in the agricultural field, little knowledge in marketing, industrialization, lack of electricity, roads in poor condition. There is contamination along the Inter-American Highway, with solid and liquid waste dumps, putting drinking water intakes at risk. The problem of extraction of flora (lana (moss), palmitos, charcoal, ferns, etc.), poaching, killing of felines, tapirs, sahinos, collareja pigeon, tepezcuintle, cabro de monte, among others, is significant. Problems of usurpation of State lands (around 3,000 ha) and forest fires in the páramo area also occur.
2.4.7. Osa Conservation Area a. Golfito National Wildlife Refuge This protected area presents a series of problems that induce the deterioration of the natural resources of the refuge, among which land tenure stands out as the main one. Legal and illegal timber exploitation also occurs, combined with poaching and illegal extraction of flora. Furthermore, squatting has occurred in the La Lechería sector and at the Airport.
b. Golfo Dulce Forest Reserve One of the serious problems that arises is illegal gold extraction, which directly affects the deterioration of natural resources, through the destruction of surface formations, such as soil, along with the contamination of water and riverbeds. Another serious problem, which adds to the former, is illegal logging, where stockpile yards can be located in Puerto Jiménez, La Palma, and Chacarita, due to the lack of proper control and follow-up. In addition, hunting and illegal extraction of fauna and flora occur.
2.4.8. Pacífico Central Conservation Area a. Caraigres Protective Zone Because this protective zone was declared without prior field studies, a large amount of land that was heavily deforested was included. Currently, a detailed study is required to justify the modification of its boundaries. From this perspective, it is recommended to connect the protective zone through a biological corridor with the state-owned property located in Sabanilla de Acosta.
b. El Rodeo Protective Zone The existence of the protective zone and the abandonment of extensive livestock farming propitiated the recovery of considerable masses of secondary forest, especially in the Jaris River basin. However, in the upper parts, land overuse persists, causing considerable landslides and gullies. The lack of operational resources limits the permanent assignment of officials in this zone. Furthermore, all of the lands (2,256 ha) are privately owned. Because the protective zone has the white-tailed deer population closest to the Greater Metropolitan Area, illegal hunting problems often occur, requiring constant attention from the control and protection area officials. To a lesser extent, the illegal extraction of orchids and tree fern trunks also occurs.
c. Tivives Protective Zone One of the main problems it faces is the inclusion within its boundaries of urban areas and cultivation plots, which bear no relation whatsoever to the objectives for creating the protective zone.
d. Los Santos Forest Reserve The expansion of the agricultural frontier, which reached its maximum degree in Costa Rica in the eighties, now places farmers in a dilemma as a consequence of a sudden change, from an abundance of land to colonize to a scarcity; forcing them to use the land unsustainably, in marginal areas with steep slopes. The low productivity of crops turns the children of farmers into immigrants to other deforestation fronts, aggravating the problem day by day. The conversion of oak groves into pastures and tillage lands resulted in mass movements of earth and finally in erosion and gully formation. Soil compaction by cattle trampling has reached unprecedented levels in some sectors. The boom in prices for so-called "high-altitude coffee" causes the accelerated destruction of oak grove fragments, diminishes drinking water supplies, and threatens to contaminate the waters of the Savegre River basin with the installation of a new processing plant (beneficio) in the Providencia area. Uncontrolled use of fire in the oak groves and páramos led to the impoverishment of flora and fauna. The páramo of Cerro Buenavista, also known as Cerro de la Muerte, has been affected by fires on several occasions. On this hill, a large number of telecommunications antennas are concentrated, degrading the quality of the landscape, a compensatory situation with the requirement of mitigation measures when requesting the connection or expansion of the one possessed. Indiscriminate use of pesticides for weed control in pastures reduces protective cover and contributes to aggravating irreversible erosion processes. Reforestation activities in the reserve have been few; in general, plantations are small and consist of exotic trees such as cypress, pine, and eucalyptus. In most cases, these plantations are poorly managed, there are no thinnings, they produce excessive shade, and accelerate erosive processes. The constant elimination of plant and animal species is the final irreversible consequence of the deforestation and degradation process. Some species heavily used in some sectors are in true danger of extinction, as they have great difficulties regenerating in open areas under a grazing regime. Some illegal activities occur, such as the extraction of tree fern stems for orchid cultivation, the extraction of mosses (lana), the capture of birds for the pet trade, and hunting. Inland within the reserve, small-scale deforestation for the expansion of lands for pastures and subsistence agriculture still occurs. The lack of roads makes timber extraction for industrial purposes impossible.
e. Cerro Nara Protective Zone The problems of hunting and illegal extraction of flora stem from the lack of assignment of permanent personnel in the protective zone. Annually, the Pacífico Central Conservation Area contracts the cleaning of firebreaks on state properties. In some exceptionally dry years, forest fires may occur. There is practically no pressure from occupants and owners for timber extraction. Due to the scarce attention given to the protective zone, there is a lot of hunting pressure in the area, especially of tepezcuintles.
f. Cerros de Turrubares Protective Zone Because most private farms are now covered by forest, the granting of incentives for its protection is recommended. It is important to highlight that this protective zone is seriously affected by land tenure problems and there are threats of squatting.
g. Montes de Oro Protective Zone Agricultural and livestock activities without conservation works are causing deterioration in soils and in the quality of water resources.
h. Fernando Castro Cervantes National Wildlife Refuge This refuge presents serious problems of land tenure, illegal hunting, and control by State officials, the latter due to a lack of operational resources.
i. Cerro de la Cangreja Protective Zone Although about 70% of the protective zone is privately owned, the pressure for land-use change (cambio de uso del suelo) is very low. However, the imposition of limitations on private property may trigger serious problems in the near future. There are currently conflicts over land tenure; specifically between the boundaries of state property and those of some private properties. Few investigations have been carried out related to the important ecosystems represented within this protective zone. There are no inventories of fauna and flora, especially of those lesser-known groups such as mosses, ferns, orchids, bromeliads, and other groups of minor flora, as well as some invertebrate groups.
j. Cerros de Escazú Protective Zone Among the main problems this protective zone faces are: hunting, landslides mainly on Cerro Tapezco of approximately 5 ha due to deforestation and water erosion, urbanization for tourism and recreation purposes. Also, radio and television repeater towers have been installed. It is important to mention that this protected area shows strong pressure from its surrounding communities, Alajuelita, Escazú, San Antonio, Bebedero, Salitral, Matinilla, Río Oro, Barrio España, Piedades, La Trinidad, Ciudad Colón, and San Bosco.
2.4.9. Tempisque Conservation Area a. Nosara Protective Zone The general problem of the protective zone is not so acute. However, the general socioeconomic problems of the sector persist, such as the lack of productive options for the landowners who are within the protective zone, whose lands, due to steep slopes and eroded soils, live in an almost unsustainable economic condition.
b. Cerro de La Cruz y Cuenca del Río Potrero Protective Zone The main problems that arise are: forest fires, poaching, and contamination of waters by agrochemicals. Regarding fires and hunting, these originate from cultural traditions that have been poorly guided and a lack of awareness about the value of resources and the need for their sustainable use. Contamination by agrochemicals originates from the practice of melon cultivation on large tracts of land and the little control exercised over it. A good part of this problem has a trigger in the private property regime and its implications, along with the few resources that government institutions have to apply the relevant legislation.
c. Bosque Diriá National Wildlife Refuge The problems present in this refuge are summarized below: · Lack of operational resources and infrastructure · Land tenure and agricultural/livestock practices · Illegal hunting, due to socio-cultural practices · Lack of knowledge in natural resource management · Forest fires e. Taboga Forest Reserve The main problem facing the Taboga forest reserve is illegal hunting, which is favored by the lack of personnel and operational resources in control activities.
ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING 3.1. PLANNING CRITERIA To carry out adequate planning based on solid foundations, and to make recommendations that lead to correct decisions, criteria must be established that allow standardizing management and processing procedures in all administrative units. Thus, the three basic planning criteria used in this study are established in this section: a. Legal aspects: All current legislation related to the activities considered for development in protected wild areas was analyzed, as far as possible, and broken down according to the level of detail for each of the management categories analyzed. Thus, the user of the document can consult which legal norm may apply in each particular case. b. Land-use conflict: It is defined as the problems that arise when the current land use diverges from its land-use capability. This allows guiding the physical space, limitations, and conditions for the development or elimination of a determined activity. c. Natural hazards: In Costa Rica, there are very few cases where the influence of natural hazards has been considered an important variable for deciding the development of different activities. The total or partial loss of investments, unemployment, deterioration of roads and means of communication, the slow recovery of systems, and most seriously, the impairment of health and loss of human lives, are some of the consequences that could be avoided by considering natural hazards within the planning criteria. By considering the three previous criteria, applied planning based on land-use planning is proposed. For the expected positive effects to occur, they must be considered jointly and not separately, as they are considered complementary.
3.1.1. Legal Regulations All activities to be carried out in any of the protected wild areas, whether subjects of this study or not, are practically regulated by current regulations. The main laws for the management of ASPs are the Law for the Creation of the National Parks Service, the Forest Law (Ley Forestal), the Wildlife Conservation Law, the Organic Environmental Law, and the Biodiversity Law, without prejudice to the application of other specific regulations such as other laws, decrees, regulations, and administrative resolutions. Therefore, a series of charts have been prepared that include much of that regulation related to agricultural and livestock activities, mining, infrastructure, industrial, energy, transportation, and others. (see charts 4 through 12) To process permits within the ASPs, every official must apply the forms found in the SINAC Quality System's Manual of Guides and Procedures. a. Form F01 – 001 – 009: For use permits in mixed and private ownership national wildlife refuges, mainly for tourist development activities; recreational tourist housing and dwelling; agricultural/livestock; mining; public and social interest. b. Form F01 – 001 – 022: For forest industry permits. c. Form F01 – 001 – 019: For tree cutting on agricultural/livestock use lands without forest and with forest, and for power lines. d. Form F01 – 003 – 000: For burning permits on lands with forest aptitude. In addition, there are other activities whose request has a duly established procedure. There are some activities that are being carried out illegally, such as squatting, for which the Wildlife Law No. 7317 (Art. 7) and the Forest Law (Ley Forestal) No. 7575 (Art. 36), include specific articles. For wildlife use permits, the provisions of the Wildlife Law No. 7317 and its regulations must be applied. Chart 4. Legal Regulations for Metallic and Non-Metallic Mining (See Supplement 34 to Official Gazette No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
Chart 5. Legal Regulations for Agricultural/Livestock Activities (See Supplement 34 to Official Gazette No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
Chart 6. Legal Regulations for Industrial Activities (See Supplement 34 to Official Gazette No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
Chart 7. Legal Regulations for Activities in the Energy Field.
(See Supplement 34 to Official Gazette No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
Chart 8. Legal Regulations for Infrastructure Activities.
(See Supplement 34 to Official Gazette No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
Chart 9. Legal Regulations for Transportation Activities.
(See Supplement 34 to Official Gazette No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
Chart 10. Legal Regulations for Forestry Activities.
(See Supplement 34 to Official Gazette No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
Chart 11. Legal Regulations for activities related to wildlife.
(See Supplement 34 to Official Gazette No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
Chart 12. Legal Regulations for Tourism activities.
(See Supplement 34 to Official Gazette No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
3.1.2. Use Conflict and Natural Hazards The following section corresponds to the case analysis of the protected wild areas included in the POA in the nine conservation areas. The results of the respective statistical analysis are included, as well as the maps generated according to land-use conflict, productive activities, and natural hazards.
A. Cordillera Volcánica Central Conservation Area (ACCVC) According to Figure 1, the results indicate that for the ACCVC, there is adequate land use, with a correct use of 66.91% of the surface area it possesses. However, having 23.04% in overuse, of which 18.32% corresponds to overuse 3 (the most critical), determines the need to seek technical solutions and social awareness, a change that will affect the reduction of these areas for future assessments. The low percentage within the concept of land underuse (6.04%), should not mean a loss of obligation to change, given that it represents 4,893 ha, an area not negligible and located mainly in the La Selva Protective Zone and the Cordillera Volcánica Central FR. FIGURE 1. LAND-USE CONFLICTS CORDILLERA VOLCANICA CENTRAL CONSERVATION AREA YEAR 2000 (See Supplement 34 to Official Gazette No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
a. La Selva Protective Zone (Maps 1, 2, 3) An overuse equivalent to 244 ha is observed, which corresponds to 9.99% of the area. There are about 46 ha that are classified as overuse 1 in the north of the protective zone; the vast majority is classified as underuse 2, which could allow other activities, but given its rich biodiversity and the high percentage of cover, land-use change (cambio de uso) must be avoided as reaffirmed by current law. The northern part and along the Peje and Guácimo rivers are flood-prone areas. A 15.36% correct protection and agricultural/livestock use is located. Within the protective zone, there are three IDA peasant settlements, with a total area of 62.13 ha, corresponding to 2.54% of the total area thereof.
b. Cordillera Volcánica Central Forest Reserve (Maps 4, 5, 6) The Reserve does not have land-use capability information; therefore, the POA commission considered it as protection to prepare the conflict map, where 75% maintains correct use distributed in forest management, protection, and agricultural/livestock. It presents an underuse of 2.53%, which must be maintained due to its hydrological importance. Overuse 3, which is due to agricultural practices, accounts for 16.3%, corresponding to 11,067 ha, dispersed throughout the reserve, except for the area located southeast of the Barba Volcano, which has correct forest use. Northeast of the Irazú volcano near Cerro Alto Grande, this process is being reversed with forest plantations. It is observed that in areas close to IDA farms, there is overuse of both type 1 and type 2, perhaps due to agricultural activities. In the northeast sector of Cariblanco, overuse 3 zones are associated with management plans, which, if well executed, can reduce the deterioration of the zone. In the Concordia - Cinco Esquinas, Mojón, Guaraní zone, land overuse favors the activation of a landslide identified by the CNE; this instability is a product of the low-cohesion materials coming from the ash fall of the Barba volcano. In the surroundings of the Irazú Volcano and Turrialba, these are zones prone to ash fall, materials that due to their low cohesion are susceptible to landslides, so land overuse accelerates this process. In this region, the Toro Amarillo River rises and is prone to avalanches and floods, and along the banks of its channel there is strong overuse deterioration, class 3. Around the Patria River and Sucio River in the northwest part of the eastern sector, it is also a site prone to avalanches and floods, and to the north of this, there is a recharge zone that mostly presents adequate protection cover. On the margins of the Corinto River, overuse 3 is occurring, which favors avalanches and floods. The zone around the Barba Volcano is a recharge zone for the aquifers that supply water to the greater metropolitan area.
c. Grecia Forest Reserve (Maps 7, 8, 9) The Grecia FR presents correct use in 76.23% for both protection and management. Due to the absence of information regarding land-use capability, the Commission considered it as protection. Furthermore, it was created for the purpose of protecting water resources. In the southern part, more than 50% presents agricultural/livestock use, which is not very appropriate due to the possibility of mainly contaminating the aquifer recharge areas. In the upper basins of the rivers that protect the area, adequate forest cover (cobertura forestal) must be maintained to avoid chemical and biological contamination of groundwater. The water intakes supply the canton of Grecia. Most of it is influenced by the fall of pyroclastic materials. In the southeast sector, possibly associated with land use, slope instability is occurring. On the banks of the Rosales River and San Juan River, there are threats of torrents (water bombs).
d. Bosque Alegre National Refuge (Maps 10, 11, 12) In general terms, this zone is in a good state of conservation, presenting class 1 overuse in 13.26% of the area, which is associated with the banks of the Tercero River, which is a discharge zone for this river. The area is mostly in underuse 2 (70.27%) and correct use, corresponding to 13.11%. Mining exploitation in the upper basin of the Hule River is a high source of sediment contaminants, from which a recovery must be demanded; the overuses present in the northern sector, combined with the reverse fault that passes through the Refuge boundary, cause great sensitivity and erosion in this zone. In the area there are three lagoons of volcanic origin, which must be protected according to current law.
e. Río Tuis Protective Zone (Maps 13, 14, 15) The area presents 84% within the correct use class, with 79% in protection and the remainder in forest management (manejo forestal). It also presents a fairly low overuse (sobreuso), since categories 1, 2, and 3 correspond to 9.69%, together with a 6.20% underuse (subuso 2), where the Tuis and Platanillo farms are located. The overuses are associated with the adjacency of the road, with the aggravating factor that it also occurs in the rivers that cross the area. A field verification of this protected area is recommended, due to its lack of land-use capacity (capacidad de uso). On its southeastern boundary, there is a dextral fault (a strike-slip fault with movement of its right block towards the observer), coupled with human activity.
f. Río Toro Protective Zone (Mapas 16, 17, 18) It is a deteriorated zone that presents almost 42.79% overuse, where overuse 3 accounts for more than 20%. Correct use is observed mostly in the central zone with a percentage greater than 57%, where 41% is forest management. Special attention must be paid to the overuse 2 zones and the overuse 3 zones. To the west of the protective zone, there is an erosion zone. It is a zone of constant volcanic threat due to the influence of the Poás Volcano; faults are minimal. To the south and east of the protective zone, there are important recharge zones that feed the Toro River, from which two electric power generation projects are supplied.
g. Cerros de La Carpintera Protective Zone (Mapas 19, 20, 21) This area is quite deteriorated, presenting more than 60.93% in the overuse category. It presents a correct agricultural/livestock (uso correcto agropecuario) use (2.59%) and a considerable correct protection use of 33%. In addition, it has a fairly low underuse 2 (3.48%). Follow-up must be given to the protected area due to the existence of several quarries (tajos) and problems of squatter settlements (precarismo) within the zone. A field verification is recommended for this area to corroborate the data according to the conflict classes, due to its lack of land-use capacity. Due to the effects of the Irazú Volcano, the entire area is exposed to the fall of pyroclasts (cenizas) and is crossed in its central part by a system of faults, oriented SE-NW. It presents strong slope instability associated with the existing local roads.
h. Río Tiribí Protective Zone (Mapas 22, 23, 24) This wilderness area lacks land-use capacity, so it was treated in the same manner as the previous one. With the conflict map, approximately 64% presents an overuse of the soil, with overuse standing out at 63.52%, possibly due to agricultural and livestock activities. As for correct use, it has 36.23%, mostly in protection. The eastern boundary of the ASP, possibly due to its lithological characteristics, has favored the appearance of mining, which threatens the human drinking water catchments (captaciones de agua de consumo humano) located in the zone. More than 95% of the ZP is considered an aquifer recharge area, in addition to its sensitivity to volcanic ash falls and the presence of a fault in the northern sector.
i. Cerros de Atenas Protective Zone (Mapas 25, 26, 27) The Cerros de Atenas ZP shows an overuse of 69%, followed by an underuse of 26%, a situation that is under threat of increasing, considering the new urban developments (desarrollos urbanísticos) within it. The northwestern sector of the zone consists of underutilized lands; however, the presence of the road leading to Cuajiniquil becomes a threat to land use. More than 50% of the ZP possesses natural threats that partly justify its reason for being, and that urban developments could put its residents at risk. This area does not have land-use capacity, so the conflict map was obtained by assuming that its land-use capacity is protection.
j. El Chayote Protective Zone (Mapas 28, 29, 30) This protective zone does not have land-use capacity, so the Commission considered it as protection to develop the conflict map, obtaining 57.35% overuse, associated with the presence of the road network, which has contributed to the possible colonization and degradation of natural vegetation. In the upper basin of the Isla River, its degree of deterioration is evident, which will result in a loss of quality of the water resource; this sector constitutes part of the recharge area of this watercourse. It also presents 40.9% correct use, agricultural/livestock and protection, along with 1.76% underuse 2. The entire protected area is an aquifer recharge zone for the rivers that flow towards the Central Pacific and are exposed to the volcanic foci of the Central Volcanic Range. These aquifers have developed in volcanic rocks, characterized by the movement of water through their fissures. Due to these conditions, the soils have low retention and contamination filtration capacity. It is important to add that this zone is threatened by agricultural expansion from surrounding areas, increasing the risk of contaminating these groundwater layers (mantos). The entire area is exposed to volcanic emissions, which threaten both the human population and the wild flora and fauna.
k. Río Grande Protective Zone (Mapas 31, 32, 33) In the protective zone, there is 65.81% overuse of the land, which is reflected in the degree of deterioration that the Grande River presents. 25.15% corresponds to an underuse of the land where 60 ha of the Doña Anita Farm of the IDA are located; in this sector, encroachment on the banks of the Grande River must be avoided, due to its avalanches and floods. In addition, the protection of the river banks must be maintained in accordance with article 34 of the Forest Law (Ley Forestal). There is 9% correct agricultural/livestock and protection use. The northern sector of the Z.P. is exposed to volcanic emissions.
Cuadro 13. Land-Use Conflict (Conflicto en el Uso de la Tierra) in the Wild Protected Areas under study, Central Volcanic Range Conservation Area (Área de Conservación Cordillera Volcánica Central), Costa Rica. Year 2000 (Ver el Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
B. Arenal - Tilarán Conservation Area (Área de Conservación Arenal - Tilarán) (ACA-T) In figure 2, the land-use conflict in the Arenal – Tilarán Conservation Area can be observed; the relatively low area under overuse (5.03%) should not be underestimated, since an important area that could increase this value was not adequately characterized, remaining in the undefined (no definido) category (26.18%), a situation that ideally should be corrected for future evaluations of the conservation area.
FIGURA 2 CONFLICTOS EN EL USO DE LA TIERRA ÁREA DE CONSERVACIÓN ARENAL – TILARAN AÑO 2000 (Ver el Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
24.58% are lands with a type 2 underuse, a situation that should be sought to reduce in favor of proper use, through technically endorsed exploitations. The complementary values correspond to lands with correct use (44.21%).
a. Miravalles Protective Zone (Mapas 34, 35, 36) As a consequence of the volcanic massif and the associated climatic (orographic) phenomena, 52.22% is under the undefined class. The second relative value is correct use with 30.26%, which corresponds to protection and agricultural/livestock. Overuse 3 occurs in 14.31%, perhaps associated with the presence of the towns of Cuipilapa and La Fortuna. Visualizing a radial drainage pattern and an associated risk of avalanches, it is advisable to limit any activity on the banks of both main and secondary rivers. The protective zone is exposed to volcanic threats from both airborne materials (volcanic bombs and pyroclasts) and semi-fluid types; these threats were one of the main reasons for its creation. Cooling faults or faults due to the collapse of the volcanic caldera possibly exist, which are not visualized on the provided map.
b. Tenorio Protective Zone (Mapas 37, 38, 39) This zone does not have land-use capacity, so it was considered as protection to obtain the conflict map, from which 35.82% is located in the undefined class due to being covered by clouds. 54.84% is under correct use. Lands under the overuse category (4%) are found dispersed in the southernmost blocks of the area. Areas with overuse 1 and 2 represent 5.34%, and are found dispersed in the four blocks that form the area, without any defined pattern. The northeastern blocks near the Martirio and San Lorenzo rivers are under the threat of the Tenorio Volcano, and the same occurs with the western sector of the eastern block. The volcanic threats can present as pyroclast falls and lava flows. It is a zone of abrupt slopes, 75% covered by forest. The eastern block is crossed in its central part by a dextral strike-slip fault, which locally controls the drainage pattern of the Jilguero River and possibly shaped Lake Coté (Lago Coté).
c. Arenal - Monteverde Protective Zone (Mapas 40, 41, 42) It presents the largest distribution between correct protection use at 40.28% and underuse 2 at 37.62%. There are undefined sectors, possibly due to clouds, which are mainly within the preceding classes (13.74%). It possesses 5.57% correct use in forest management near the La Fortuna, Aranjuez, and Veracruz rivers; the problems of overuse 1 and 3 do not reach 1%. The Northern and Northwestern Zone of the Monteverde Protective Zone present volcanic threats (Arenal Volcano), mainly lavas and ash, and in the central part, practically over the channel of the Peñas Blancas River, a sinistral strike-slip geological fault crosses. Along this river, there are thermal waters, which may be a product of being located near a volcano or from friction in the fault. Due to these characteristics, it should be considered high risk. On the Peñas Blancas River, outside the Protective Area, the construction of the Peñas Blancas Hydroelectric Project is beginning, developed by the ICE, through the trust system (fideicomiso).
d. Arenal Emergency Zone Forest Reserve (Mapas 43, 44) The entire area comprised by this reserve is under volcanic threat, due to the current activity of the Arenal Volcano. Locally, there are thermal sources that should not be exploited for tourism in order to avoid putting residents at risk. It is advisable to establish an adequate surveillance and alarm system to warn officials and tourists of an eventual emergency. 56.47% is under correct use, predominantly protection, despite an overuse of 41.35%; this is not worrying, because it is defined by an incipient plant colonization that will generate conditions for the establishment of larger plant species.
Cuadro 14. Land-Use Conflict in the Wild Protected Areas under study, Arenal Tilarán Conservation Area (Área De Conservación Arenal Tilarán), Costa Rica. Year 2000 (Ver el Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
C. Arenal Huetar - Norte Conservation Area (ACA – HN) Figure 3 shows a correct use of 50.65% in the Huetar - Norte Conservation Area, of which 45.07% corresponds to protection. The three types of overuses are manifested in them, covering 14.32%. The total underuses represent 23.65%.
FIG. 3 CONFLICTOS EN EL USO DE LA TIERRA ÁREA DE CONSERVACIÓN ARENAL - HUETAR NORTE AÑO 2000 (Ver el Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
a. Caño Negro National Wildlife Refuge (Mapas 45, 46, 47) In this refuge, overuse type 3 (9.26%) is found associated with part of the water network that crosses it, although on the right bank of the Sabogal River and the left bank of the Mónica River, there are sectors whose divergence indicates that an underuse of the territory (2.28%) is occurring; a similar situation occurs on the southern boundary, near the road leading to the community of El Amparo. The rest of the territory corresponds to lands under protection (78.01%) and undefined (10.55%); this last category should be reduced in the future, with field work being the main tool for its characterization. This type of research will allow for a better understanding of the alteration that the introduction of cattle into the lagoon areas for pasture control would cause. In the southernmost sector of the refuge, the planting of subsistence crops of beans and rice is occurring, an activity that should be monitored to prevent the start of a process of overuse of the territory.
b. La Cureña Forest Reserve (Mapas 48, 49) This wilderness area is located on acidic soils of low fertility and depth with low slopes, which qualifies 64.37% as underuse 2; however, due to the previous characteristics, it has many limitations in its use. It has overuses of 25.02% and little correct use (1.35%). It is necessary to control the increase in agricultural development, possibly caused by the La Cureña farm of the IDA. Close to 10% is undefined; however, the tendency is toward underuse 2.
c. Cerro El Jardín Forest Reserve (Mapas 50, 51) This reserve is covered by forest in 63.09%, which allows, according to its land-use capacity, efficient management of the area, complying with the stipulations of the current Forest Law. However, as 95.75% belongs to an IDA settlement, it could be threatened by the policies created for developing settlements.
Cuadro 15. Land-Use Conflict in the Wild Protected Areas under study, Arenal Huetar - Norte Conservation Area (Área de ConservaciónArenal Huetar - Norte), Costa Rica. Year 2000 (Ver el Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
D. Tortuguero Conservation Area (ACTo) In the Tortuguero conservation area, according to figure 4, 83.08% of its lands are being used optimally, 4.33% are used below their capacity. 8.51% have lands with overuse, where 8.36% are lands with the most critical exploitation (overuse 3), a situation that represents slightly more than 7,398 ha, determining that their management is a priority. The remaining 4.08% corresponds to lands whose divergences have not been defined, a value that should decrease with the proper characterization of the lands identified and located on the maps generated for this conservation area.
FIGURA 4 CONFLICTOS EN EL USO DE LA TIERRA ÁREA DE CONSERVACIÓN TORTUGUERO AÑO 2000 (Ver el Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
a. Barra del Colorado Wildlife Refuge (Mapas 52, 53, 54) The underuse class divergence is present in 0.29% of the lands, located on the western boundary of the refuge. Associated with this exploitation and partially encompassing them, there are overuse 3 lands, which are also found in a dispersed form and near the Colorado River, representing 8.61% of the refuge. 88.59% is under the correct use category, being almost entirely dedicated to protection. The remaining 2.60% corresponds to an undefined use and is located in the northern sector of the refuge and on part of the banks of the Colorado River. In the refuge, flood risk predominates, a danger that is one of the main causes for limiting the development of economic activities other than protection.
b. Tortuguero Protective Zone (Mapas 55, 56, 57) Most of the refuge is exposed to floods throughout the year; it lacks land-use capacity mapping. From the conflict map, it emerges that it has a correct protection use of 65%, a condition that supports its geobiophysical characteristics. It presents an overuse 3 (12.78%), which is related to the different productive activities and the proximity of the IDA farm La Pavona.
c. Guácimo – Pococí Aquifers Protective Zone (Mapas 58, 59, 60) Its main objective is the protection of aquifers that emerge from the ground and supply the cantons of Guácimo and Pococí; due to this condition, despite resulting in an underuse of 84.3%, its current use should not change in order to maintain the quality of the water resource in the zone. Several activities are present, which, if continued, may cause deterioration of the floristic and water resource. The southern sector of the larger block is exposed to threats originating from the Turrialba Volcano. The tributaries of the Toro Amarillo River and part of the main channel present avalanche threats, so any economic activity at the identified points must be limited.
Cuadro 16. Land-Use Conflict in the Wild Protected Areas under Study. Tortuguero Conservation Area (Área de Conservación Tortuguero), Costa Rica. Year 2000 (Ver el Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
E. La Amistad Caribe Conservation Area (ACLA – C) As shown in figure 5, the land-use conflicts in the La Amistad Caribe Conservation Area are considered low, since lands in overuse only represent 8.16% of the grand total, a situation that should not be minimized, given that the majority of this value is contributed by overuse 3 (7.68%), representing 2,191 ha. The remainder corresponds to lands with optimal use (83.50%), underuse (5.32%), and the undefined category (3.02%), values that should be maintained through adequate relationships with the involved populations and continuous environmental education that allows them to maximize the resource they possess without its deterioration.
FIGURA 5 CONFLICTOS EN EL USO DE LA TIERRA ÁREA DE CONSERVACIÓN LA AMISTAD CARIBE AÑO 2000 (Ver el Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
a. Pacuare – Matina Forest Reserve (Mapas 61, 62) In its majority, this reserve presents a correct protection use (65.77%); in the northwestern sector, it possesses 26.8% underutilized area. The undefined use category corresponds to the coastal region of the zone, which are coastal lands with yolillo palm-type vegetation. The zone is exposed to the seismic threat typical of the Atlantic coast, to floods, and eventually to tsunami threats (Personal communication from Valverde, Ronald).
b. Río Pacuare Forest Reserve (Mapas 63, 64) This area lacks land-use capacity, so it was taken as protection to create the conflict map. 81.89% is used under correct protection and agricultural/livestock use. As overuse (1 and 3), there is 15.50% of the territory, associated with the presence of the road network and the pressure for the expansion of the agricultural frontier in the northern sector of the reserve. Underuse occurs on the eastern bank of the reserve near the Pacuare River and isolated sectors of the northern boundary. However, this area must be kept protected in accordance with article 19 and 34 of the Forest Law. The IDA farms that cover 30% of the total area of the Reserve could be a threat that would affect the protection conditions and other tourism and water resource activities that take place. The ecological developments and tourism activities are located south of the Reserve, associated with the Dantas River. The hydroelectric project developed by the ICE has its dam site in the northern sector on the Pacuare River. The largest amount of agricultural/livestock exploitation is outside the area, but it constitutes a threat due to the expansion of the agricultural frontier in the northeastern sector of the reserve, near the Siquirres River. The wilderness area presents a threat of landslides in the zones of slopes with high rainfall.
c. Cuenca del Río Banano Protective Zone (Mapas 65, 66) Due to its isolation and its conditions of high rainfall and topography, it still conserves forest in areas whose land-use capacity is protection at 88.04% and forest management at 4.12%. It also maintains a water resource that is used in a hydroelectric project.
d. Cuenca Río Siquirres Protective Zone (Mapas 67, 68) 67% is underutilized, so it must be maintained in this category for basin protection. Its eastern boundary presents overuse, possibly a consequence of the road adjacent to the area; if this pattern continues, soil degradation will increase. The northern sector is threatened by the presence of IDA farms, a situation that, if not managed, could contaminate the aqueduct of the population called "Coco". Attention must be paid to the overuses that are closest to the river to prevent its deterioration. Poultry and swine activity near the population of Moravia must be monitored to prevent it from directly or indirectly affecting the Protective Zone.
e. Gandoca Manzanillo National Wildlife Refuge (Mapas 69, 70 y 71) 93.72% of the territory of this refuge has no conflict of use, being under protection use; within it and locally, there are lands under overuse (2.44%), associated with the highway that crosses the refuge. The presence of type 2 underuses on the outer edge stands out, corresponding to 3.84% of the refuge, possibly a product of slope changes.
f. Limoncito National Wildlife Refuge (Mapas 72, 73) The refuge has 42.37% of the area in correct agricultural/livestock use. In the past, productive activities took place, associated with the abandoned burrocarril in the zone. The rest of the area corresponds to underuse 1 and 3, with a value of 57.26%, these present floods all year round. There are problems of squatter settlements (precarismo) within the refuge; likewise, two IDA farms are located on its boundaries, with an approximate area of 78.12 ha, representing a threat to the refuge.
Cuadro 17. Land-Use Conflict in the Wild Protected Areas under study, La Amistad Caribe Conservation Area (Área de Conservación La Amistad Caribe), Costa Rica. Year 2000 (Ver el Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
F. La Amistad Pacífico Conservation Area (ACLA – P) The conservation area in figure 6 shows a high percentage with correct use (85.33%), allowing 2.16% in forest management, representing 2,207 ha. Under the underuse category, there are 946 ha (0.93%). Despite the previous results, they do not exempt the existence of overuse problems in 5,692 ha (5.58%), a situation that demands timely measures for their management.
FIGURA 6 CONFLICTOS EN EL USO DE LA TIERRA ÁREA DE CONSERVACIÓN LA AMISTAD PACIFICO AÑO 2000 (Ver el Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
a. Las Tablas Protective Zone (Mapas 74, 75) A majority of correct protection use (79%) has been identified, and in the eastern part (border with Panama), the conflict category "undefined" (20.26%) prevails, possibly derived from cloud cover. It is a zone of forests, with low accessibility and high water potential. The apparent development of hotel activities on the riverbanks of the ZP must be monitored, given that they are being developed in areas sensitive to torrents and are also protected areas regulated by article 34 of the Forest Law.
b. Río Sombrero y Río Navarro Protective Zone (Mapas 76, 77, 78) In this protective zone, close to 57.24% are lands with correct uses, with protection standing out at 55%. Its predominance in the southeastern sector is a product of the lack of a road network to facilitate the advancement of the agricultural frontier. The different productive activities that are generating overuses are associated with the road network. Mining must be given constant follow-up to ensure the least possible alteration. The western sector of the ZP is susceptible to large-scale landslides, a threat in clear conflict with land use. The Navarro River runs over the trace of an active fault with which historical earthquakes are associated; within it, this same tectonic structure is located on the right bank of the river. It lacks land-use capacity information, so its survey is recommended.
c. Río Macho Forest Reserve (Mapas 79, 80, 81) The main areas with underuse (0.64%) and overuse (4.28%) occur throughout the northern sector as small areas, a trend that must be reversed to ensure the forest resource it possesses. The lands that, according to available information, qualify as undefined possibly correspond to protection areas at 86.55%. This information deficiency must be corrected in the future through field verification. Additionally, the reserve lacks land-use capacity; the Commission decided to consider it as protection. The majority of the different productive activities are associated with the Inter-American Highway. It is advisable to work with the neighbors so they act as agents of change and use the lands properly. The water intakes (tomas de agua) located on the Grande de Orosí and Pejibaye rivers are of national importance for supplying liquid to the metropolitan aqueduct and the Río Macho hydroelectric project. To the north of the Reserve and near the community of Pejibaye, there is an IDA farm where small manifestations of land overuse are beginning, a situation to be reversed. In the western part, adjacent to Tapantí Park, due to the high rainfall, high slope, and superficial soils—characteristics that determine superficial landslides—a phenomenon that reaffirms its exploitation as land under protection. In the eastern part, there are geological faults that could generate seismic activity. This reserve has a great water potential, a reason that justifies the need to guarantee the preservation of this valuable resource; for this reason, the management category was changed for 54,495 ha from forest reserve to national park in November 1999, under the name Tapantí - Macizo Cerro La Muerte; the remaining 21,201.29 ha maintain their reserve category.
Cuadro 18. Land-Use Conflict in the Wild Protected Areas under study La Amistad Pacífico Conservation Area (Área de Conservación La Amistad Pacífico), Costa Rica. Year 2000 (Ver el Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
G. Osa Conservation Area (ACOSA) In figure 7, ACOSA shows a higher percentage in undefined (31.13%), representing 20,085.53 ha, a situation that warrants corroboration with other information from an upcoming publication (ECOMAPAS – SINAC – INBio). In the underuse class, there is 2.17% of the area, with only 438 ha (0.68%) being sensitive to change. Correct use represents 60.01%. The only overuse that occurs is the most severe class (overuse 3), which occurs in 4,314 ha, corresponding to 6.69%.
FIGURA 7 CONFLICTOS EN EL USO DE LA TIERRA ÁREA DE CONSERVACIÓN OSA AÑO 2000 (Ver el Alcance 34 a la Gaceta N° 92 del martes 15 de mayo del 2001. )
a. Golfito National Wildlife Refuge (Mapas 82, 83, 84) This wildlife refuge presents a fairly high correct protection use (64.93%), along with a 6.02% underuse 2, so it must be given adequate follow-up so that the area does not develop deterioration. It presents a fairly low percentage of the overuse 3 category (1.67%), and 27.37% of undefined area. From Punta Voladera to Playa Cacao, significant hotel development has occurred, possibly associated with the Golfito Duty-Free Zone (Depósito Libre de Golfito). The existence of a landslide zone aligned NW – SE is possibly a product of synthetic faulting to the reverse fault that cuts the refuge in the same direction. These landslides threaten the community of Golfito and San Francisco; therefore, proper use of their lands would decrease this threat. The prompt characterization of the undefined class is advisable, seeking thereby to prioritize areas with overuse.
b. Golfo Dulce Forest Reserve (Mapas 85,86,87) This reserve has a dispersion in its land-use classes, which only allows most of the overuse 3 (6.92%) to be concentrated, associated mainly with the watercourses that cross the area, possibly the result of former gold mining activities. The correct uses, which comprise 59.77%, are dispersed throughout the area, with correct use predominating in the IDA settlements. This does not exclude the need to characterize the undefined land-use category that encompasses 31.31% of the reserve. The predominant productive activities are associated with mining and tourism, the latter being located towards the limits of the Reserve, in the southern and western sectors. This area is located mainly on rocks of the Nicoya Complex, and has a high seismic risk, resulting from the subduction of the Cocos Plate off the coast, combined with the proximity of the Panama Fracture Zone and its associated faulting. The Golfito earthquake is a historical manifestation of its susceptibility. There is also a risk of landslides and flooding in some rivers, which is influenced by the topography of the terrain. Considering the great biodiversity existing in this area, actions must be directed towards the supervision and control of activities that are not compatible with land-use capacity.
Table 19. Land-Use Conflicts in the Studied Protected Wilderness Areas, Osa Conservation Area. Costa Rica. Year 2000 (See Scope 34 to La Gaceta No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
H. Pacífico Central Conservation Area (ACOPAC) As a result of the conflict analysis (Figure 8), this area presents the highest percentage of overuse type 3 coverage, in relation to the other conservation areas, corresponding to 18,308 ha, or 21.39%. Under the other overuse categories, 3.13% is present, corresponding to 2,677 ha. Optimal coverage is 61.36% and underuse is 3.26%.
FIGURE 8 LAND-USE CONFLICTS, PACIFICO CENTRAL CONSERVATION AREA, YEAR 2000 (See Scope 34 to La Gaceta No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
a. Caraigres Protected Zone (Maps 88, 89) This protected area has a high percentage, 57.51%, in the overuse category, with overuse 3 (48.2%) standing out, which reflects very intense productive activities on unstable soils. This may increase in view of the influence exerted by the towns adjacent to the protected area. The rest of the area, 42.49%, is in correct use protection and forest management. The protected zone manifests strong slope instability, the surface manifestation of which is the product of steep rock dips, where the steep slopes and the overuse of its terrains offer no resistance to runoff after a rain event. This will require that any activity, and especially the roads associated with it, must consider the placement of good base material and the construction of efficient drainage systems. (Personal communication from Valverde, Ronald) Its priority in terms of deterioration of its resources demands urgent attention to prevent the process of degradation and irreversible damage to the area.
b. El Rodeo Protected Zone (Maps 90, 91) This protected area does not present complete information on land-use capacity; therefore, the commission decided to classify it as protection to obtain the conflict map, from which it was determined that the overuse category is the most prominent in the entire zone, being 54.62% of its entire extent. It also possesses one of the last remnants of forest characteristic of the Central Valley, manifested in the correct use class of protection and forest management (38.61%). Its deterioration and fragility in terms of the existence of faults and landslides warrants reinforcing conservation measures through the implementation of integral development plans. The slope instability it presents in its SE and NW sectors is attributable to the lithology (Peña Negra Formation) coupled with heavy land overuse and a fault located parallel to the SW boundary of the protected zone. Due to its deterioration and fragility, the zone warrants reinforcing conservation measures through the implementation of integral development plans.
c. Tivives Protected Zone (Maps 92, 93, 94) For the most part, this protected area presents 62.67% in the underuse 1 category; however, the forest was largely eliminated, and only small forest remnants exist on the slopes. Today it is covered with scrubland (charral). It also has an area of 34.44% of correct use protection. The protected zone presents a significant number of landslides associated with road infrastructure, a situation that demands prompt decision-making to optimize road designs. There are small sectors of geological instability resulting from local faulting, possibly active, a situation that justifies land use under forest cover (cobertura forestal). It is one of the few areas with correct use, so its maintenance is of vital importance for the sustenance of natural resources. Therefore, special attention must be paid to activities related to the IDA farm and the existing saltworks within the protected zone.
d. Los Santos Forest Reserve (Maps 95, 96, 97) This protected area lacks information regarding land-use capacity; the data reflected in the conflict map assumes that the area qualifies as protection, generating a high percentage of 66.21% in the correct use category. It also has overuse, with 19.55% of the total area. The overuse that is developed mainly in the upper parts of the watersheds of the rivers crossing the reserve stands out. It is therefore urgent to take measures that, in addition to halting the deterioration process, reduce the overuse area. This reserve manifests landslides on its northern and eastern limits. This sensitivity is the product of a combination of lithology with: strong alteration, dips and counter-dips, steep slopes, land overuse (elimination of natural cover, intensive exploitation), high rainfall, and high seismicity. The combination of all these elements increases the susceptibility to deterioration of the terrains inside and outside the area.
e. Cerro Nara Protected Zone (Maps 98, 99) The main objective of its creation is the protection of water resources, a situation reflected in 71.71% correct use in forest management, to which special attention must be paid to prevent its degradation. It also presents 3.45% in the overuse 1 category and 24.84% in the undefined class. It is extremely important to maintain the current conditions of correct use and carry out actions that reverse the overuse process, in view of the characteristics present in the area, such as high rainfall, steep slopes, high seismicity, and the risk of landslides, which determine its fragility. Locally, its lithology presents hydrothermal alterations that determine part of the slope instability existing in the protected zone.
f. Cerros de Turrubares Protected Zone (Maps 100, 101, 102) This protected zone lacks land-use capacity information; therefore, its land-use conflict map is limited to protection. However, the western sector is degraded due to overgrazing, while the central and eastern part maintains a greater vegetation cover (cobertura de vegetación). This protected area has an 80.66% percentage in the correct use category. It also has low percentages in the overuse 3 (17.49%) and underuse 1 (1.59%) categories. Despite being a zone with a high percentage of correct use, its fragility characteristic makes the use of corrective measures in the overuse areas mandatory. In the northwestern sector, there is a landslide zone that is aggravated by the presence of overused terrains. The reversion of this overuse could contribute to decreasing the degree of instability and even stabilizing some landslides.
g. Quebrada Rosario Protected Zone (Maps 103, 104) This area presents good use of its productive capacity, with 71.96% in correct use forest management. It is necessary to follow up on overuse 1 and 2 (28.04%) in view of the possibility of continued soil degradation and contamination of the water intake (toma de agua) near the forest management plans. Potentially, the overuse of the territory, combined with lithology of poor mechanical quality and steep slopes, determines that the protected zone is susceptible to mass erosion (landslides).
h. Montes de Oro Protected Zone (Maps 105, 106) It is a zone of irregular slopes with forest cover (cobertura forestal) that allows for management, whose percentage in this class is 52.45%. Contradictorily, it presents an overuse of 39.27%, possibly due to the influence of the towns of Peñas Blancas, Zapotal, and Carrera Buena. The existence of mining activities contributes to the deterioration of the area, so pertinent actions must be taken to reverse this process. It is necessary to pay attention to this overuse, as the zone is affected by local fracturing and poorly cohesive lithologies, which determine slope instability that could affect downstream areas with landslides in the form of flooding.
i. Fernando Castro Cervantes National Wildlife Refuge (Maps 107, 108, 109) It is a refuge that maintains its productive intensity according to land-use capacity; the correct use protection and agricultural/livestock is 35%. Underuse corresponds to half of the area (49.91%), a condition that must be maintained to protect the zone's wildlife. In the northern sector, there are threats from faulting and avalanches on the right bank of the Turrubares River; if overuse increases, this situation would worsen. In the northeastern sector, there is an overuse 3 (14.19%) which is low, but must be adequately followed up on to prevent its increase.
j. Cerro La Cangreja Protected Zone (Maps 110, 111) This protected area lacks information on land-use capacity, so its land-use conflict map is limited to protection, corresponding to 57%, contrasting with 40% overuse. Despite the foregoing, the behavior of the overuse must be observed, considering the high biodiversity, endemism, and its susceptibility to erosion, for which corrective soil protection measures must be applied.
k. Cerros de Escazú Protected Zone (Maps 112, 113, 114) This protected area lacks information regarding land-use capacity; therefore, the commission determined to classify it as protection to create the conflict map, from which the following is derived: it is a quite critical area in view of the fact that it presents a high percentage in the overuse category (55.02%), possibly the result of agricultural activities subjected to intensive production divergent from its land-use capacity, a condition that has degraded the soil, as well as the proximity of some urban centers. These terrains must be monitored very closely to reverse the soil degradation that has been caused. A correct use of more than 40% is also observed, which is low, as it should aid in the protection of the unstable slopes that threaten the zone. Special interest must be given to this area because it is an aquifer recharge zone, as it has several water intakes (tomas de agua) for the urban centers that are within and near the protected zone. The slope instability that this protected zone presents is mainly the product of the loss of quality of its rocks, a consequence of the metamorphism that determined the Escazú intrusive body, which originates hornfels, whose dip favors mass movement, in addition to the existence of hydrothermal alteration zones. Added to the above is inadequate land use, poorly laid out roads, and housing construction in areas affected by significant geological structures (faults, jointing, etc.).
Table 20. Land-Use Conflict in the Studied Protected Wilderness Areas, Pacífico Central Conservation Area, Costa Rica. Year 2000 (See Scope 34 to La Gaceta No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
I. Tempisque Conservation Area (ACT)
Unlike all the other conservation areas, correct use under forest management corresponds to 60.68% of the area, out of a total of 67.31% for all correct uses (see Figure 9). Underuses correspond to 9.93%, with 2,187 ha being susceptible to the authorization of other activities, subject to prior inspection and compliance with current regulations. On the other hand, overuses comprise 20.83%, with 755 ha being susceptible to less impactful activities and 5,613 ha sensitive to better exploitation. The complement of relative values corresponds to the undefined conflict category.
FIGURE 9 LAND-USE CONFLICTS, TEMPISQUE CONSERVATION AREA, YEAR 2000 (See Scope 34 to La Gaceta No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
a. Nosara Protected Zone (Maps 115, 116) Woody vegetation predominates in the protected zone, determining that it does not present any type of overuse. The outstanding conflict class is underuse with 72.33%. The complementary percentage is under correct agricultural/livestock use (27.67%), an activity that must be monitored and guided towards organic agriculture to avoid the deterioration of the area. Given a geological model with subduction, the Nicoya Peninsula is located on the outer arc, a situation that makes the protected zone susceptible to seismic activity due to subduction, which has manifested with earthquakes of magnitude greater than 5, a circumstance that demands avoiding overuse of the terrains.
b. Cerro Cruz and Cuenca del Río Potrero Protected Zone (Maps 117, 118) This zone is covered by secondary forest in more than 77% and presents a correct agricultural/livestock use (pastures) of slightly less than 23%, which allows affirming that it is being adequately utilized with respect to its capacity. However, the scarcity of soil it presents and the permanent threat of fires motivates continuous observation.
c. Bosque Nacional Diría National Wildlife Refuge (Maps 119, 120) The refuge presents the highest percentage in the correct use category of more than 58%, with a prevalence of the protection category. It presents a small area of 43.40 ha (1.47%) in the underuse 1 and 2 categories; these areas are located to the south and east of the refuge, which warrant being maintained to safeguard the existing natural resources. It also has an area of 755.90 ha (25.61%) in the overuse 3 category, possibly due to the influence of the IDA settlements present in the zone, which must be followed up on to reverse the process. It also presents an area of 435.26 ha (14.74%) in the undefined category. It has an associated high seismic risk, typical of the Nicoya Peninsula. Given the possibility of a telluric event, those areas with land overuse are more sensitive, so a change of land use should be sought in those terrains under this category. Locally, on the banks of the rivers that cross it, there is a risk of flooding.
d. Taboga Forest Reserve (Map 121) In general, this protected area maintains forest cover (cobertura boscosa), determining a high percentage in the underuse 1 category (65.36%), together with a correct forest management use of 32%, which allows for conservation conditions. The banks of the Higuerón River must be maintained under current use conditions, as they present flood threats. Productive activities include sorghum, sugar cane, rice, livestock farming, and aquaculture.
e. Península de Nicoya Protected Zone (Maps 122, 123) This protected zone reflects a high percentage of correct forest management use (76.67%), combined with an underuse 1 of 8.94%, compatible with the policy of conservation and rational use of natural resources. It presents an overuse 1 (14.39%), which is located towards the northeast of the protected area, which must be followed up on for its recovery. It presents regional faulting oriented in a NE – SW direction, evidenced by the alignment of watercourses, small landslides, and other geomorphological manifestations. Its relative proximity to the subduction zone makes it sensitive to earthquakes with magnitudes greater than 5 on the modified Richter scale, which, if combined with overuse of the territory, could rapidly deteriorate the terrains, as has occurred in the surroundings of Cóbano.
f. Cuenca Río Abangares Protected Zone. (Maps 124 and 125) This protected area presents a high level of deterioration, reaching more than 56% overuse 1, leaving a little more than 40% as correct forest management use. It is possible that the unplanned management of this forestry vocation has brought the area to its support limits. Therefore, special efforts must be dedicated to reversing this overuse. Permanent threats are known from mining activity, mainly of an artisanal type, and intensive livestock farming practices.
Table 21. Land-Use Conflict in the Protected Wilderness Areas in the Tempisque Conservation Area, Costa Rica. Year 2000 (See Scope 34 to La Gaceta No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
J. Summary Analysis of Land-Use Conflict and IDA Peasant Settlements The purpose of this summary is to highlight the condition of the conservation areas and the management categories (RF, ZP, and RNVS) with respect to the land-use conflict divergences identified in the POA. Likewise, information on the existing IDA peasant settlements in the studied protected wilderness areas is analyzed.
- Management Category In general terms, according to Figure 10, the Forest Reserve category presents adequate land use, with 71.84% corresponding to correct use, the protection class standing out with 69.43% (196,242.82 ha). The overuse category represents 12.41%, with an extent of 35,094.94 ha, the overuse 3 class standing out. In these sites, measures must be taken to prevent soil degradation to guarantee its reversal.
FIGURE 10 LAND-USE CONFLICTS FOR FOREST RESERVES, PROTECTED ZONES, AND WILDLIFE REFUGES, YEAR 2000 (See Scope 34 to La Gaceta No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
In general, the National Wildlife Refuges (Fig. 10), according to the results obtained, present a good state of conservation, possessing a correct use in protection of 86,589.43 ha (83%). Underuse is added to this class, which is quite low, at 2.64%. In view of the fact that the less adequate uses have low percentages, follow-up must be given to maintain them and try to reverse the most affected zones, such as overuse 3 with 9,028.25 ha, representing 8.65% of the area. The undefined class contains a percentage of 4.87% (5,078.67 ha), which requires field verification to determine its use. In the protected zones, 56.75% of their terrains are being used in the form of correct use, the protection class standing out with 60,864.22 ha (38.74%). However, 16.86% has overuse, of which 9.28% is contributed by the overuse 3 category. Complementing these figures, the need to adequately characterize 11.68% is evident, which corresponds to lands with undefined land-use conflict (18,345.74 ha). Based on the foregoing, the need arises to establish corrective measures that help reduce the accelerated degradation of the soil resource, which, due to the interaction that exists, will influence other resources such as water and flora. In summary, of the total studied areas that sum 544,095.69 ha, only the correct use protection category covers 343,696.47 ha; that means that 63.17% of the soil is being utilized according to its land-use capacity. In the case of overuses, there is 12.99%, representing 70,707 ha, where class 3 stands out with 10.23%, a situation that must be considered to apply measures and actions that reverse this process. Underuse is represented by 6.22%, with an area of 33,917.96 ha, a condition that must be maintained according to current regulations. It is necessary to take measures to characterize the 71,779.87 ha (13.19%) that are classified as undefined due to lack of information on current use or land-use capacity.
- Conservation Areas Table 23 presents a summary of the land-use conflict analysis by conservation area, where Tortuguero, La Amistad Pacífico, and Amistad Caribe show the largest area in the correct use protection class, with percentages above 80%. Between 38% and 60% in this class are found in Cordillera Volcánica Central, Osa, Pacífico Central, and Arenal - Tilarán. The Tempisque conservation area has a surface area of 5.57% in protection, in contrast to the rest of the CAs, where it presents the highest percentage in the correct use forest management conflict class with 60.68%, due to the current use being in accordance with its land-use capacity. Regarding the overuse category, ACOPAC and ACCVC show the highest percentages, with the overuse 3 class predominating with values above 18%.
- IDA Peasant Settlements Regarding farms owned by the IDA, with peasant settlements (ANNEX 3), located within the studied protected wilderness areas in this work, there are 48 farms corresponding to 40,336.37 ha, with a percentage of 7.41% of the total of the aforementioned. The conservation areas with the greatest number of settlements in descending order are: ACLA-C, ACCVC, and ACOPAC. In terms of settlement surface area, the areas with the greatest extension are ACOSA (45.13%), ACA HN (41.16%), and ACLA-C (23.98%). In general terms, the protected zones contain the greatest number of settlements (21), followed by the forest reserves (16), and lastly the national wildlife refuges (11). On the other hand, the largest concentration in surface area is located in the Forest Reserves, with 36,011.36 ha in this condition.
Table 22. Land-Use Conflicts for Forest Reserves, Protected Zones, and Wildlife Refuges. Year 2000 (See Scope 34 to La Gaceta No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001) Table 23. Land-Use Conflict by Conservation Area, Costa Rica, Year 2000 (See Scope 34 to La Gaceta No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001) K. Procedure for Processing Applications The processing of applications is carried out through the regional and subregional offices of SINAC. For this purpose, a "Basic Guide" has been prepared containing 25 variables on productive activities in the rows and nine categories referring to land-use conflicts in the columns. Three symbols have been used to qualify applications in process. The application of this guide must necessarily be complemented with current legal regulations and natural threats to support the decisions made in each particular case. In order to clarify the productive variables considered and the symbols used, the characterization of each is presented below:
Productive variables 1 Non-metallic mining: Refers to quarries (tajos), extractions in public domain watercourses, silica sand, sulfur, kaolin, diatomites, and limestones.
2Metallic mining: Comprises the exploitation of gold (placer gold), silver, iron, bauxite, copper, and aluminum.
3Agriculture: Traditional agriculture includes sugar cane, coffee, banana, cacao, and basic grains crops, and the non-traditional includes strawberry, flower, and heart of palm crops, etc. Land-use change (cambio de uso) is not permitted in forest areas; protected zones must be maintained in accordance with Article 34 of the Forest Law. If the proposed activity represents a very significant negative environmental impact (impacto ambiental negativo muy significativo) to the project area and its environmental surroundings, the activity is not permitted; likewise, if it falls within categories A and B of Decree No. 27569-S (General regulation for the granting of operating permits by the Ministry of Health). In underuse 1, in cases where forest exists, the activity would not be permitted; for any other type of vegetation, the decision will depend on the subregional office. An alternative is organic agriculture, which should be encouraged.
4Livestock farming: Land-use change is not permitted in those areas with forest; protected zones must be maintained in accordance with Article 34 of the Forest Law. If the proposed activity represents a very significant negative environmental impact to the project area and its environmental surroundings, the activity is not permitted; likewise, if it falls within categories A and B of Decree No. 27569-S (General regulation for the granting of operating permits by the Ministry of Health). Apiaries: are an exception, because it is a very low-impact activity that can be permitted in all cases.
5Aquaculture: Depends on the type and magnitude of the project, in addition to the water surface to be used and the species to be managed; likewise, it must comply with legal requirements.
6Plant nurseries: Is conditioned on there being no forest in underuse 1.
7Industries: Those that are in operation will only be permitted on terrains that are in overuse I, underuse 1, and agricultural/livestock use. Only type C, according to the classification of Decree No. 27569-S (General regulation for the granting of operating permits by the Ministry of Health), will be permitted and by virtue of compliance with the provisions of other laws. Sawmills, which are in category B of the same Regulation mentioned, are included as an exception. Coffee processing plants (Beneficios de café): are not permitted because the proposed activity could represent a very significant negative environmental impact to the project area and its environmental surroundings.
8Energy: Only those projects that have a declaration of national convenience or public interest will be permitted, provided they comply with the requirements established by current legislation and that the proposed activity does not represent a severe negative environmental impact to the project area and its environmental surroundings, and that its synergistic effect does not conflict with other projects.
9Landfills: This type of activity, according to legislation, is not permitted in protected wilderness areas.
10Subdivisions (parcelaciones) for housing: For individual housing developments, they will be conditional in underuse I and in agricultural/livestock use. For larger-scale projects, it will only be permitted in agricultural/livestock use.
11Water catchments, water intakes (tomas de agua), aqueducts: Will be permitted within the framework of complying with the regulations established by current legislation and not coming into conflict with uses of national convenience.
12Irrigation: Irrigation depends on the project and its magnitude, as well as on water availability.
13Water deposits: Given the presence of waterholes (for wildlife), their use for other purposes must not be permitted. Water for human consumption is permitted, and regarding drinking troughs, only applications from local persons with demonstrated permanence will be authorized.
14Transport: Only those projects that have a declaration of national convenience or personal interest endorsed by the conservation area will be permitted, provided they comply with the requirements established by current legislation and if the proposed activity does not represent a severe negative environmental impact to the project area and its environmental surroundings.
15Forest management and harvesting: Forest management contributes to the sustainable development of society through the production of the greatest diversity of goods and services (timber, non-timber, and environmental services); therefore, on overused terrains, it will be conditional on not affecting the protection areas. In overuse 2, when the objective is restoration, then it is permitted.
16 Protection: This corresponds to the condition of land under dense plant cover (cobertura vegetal densa) and is permitted in all categories of land-use conflict (conflicto de uso de la tierra), because it is compatible with the purposes for which the Protected Wild Areas (ASP) were created.
17 Forest plantations (Plantaciones forestales): Land cultivated with one or more forest species whose main objective, but not the only one, shall be timber production. In the case of overuse (sobreusos) 2 and 3, only forest plantations for protection purposes shall be permitted, promoting the use of native species.
18 Agricultural land (Terrenos de uso agropecuario): These are private farms with the presence of trees not established under an agroforestry system or farms that have areas with forest cover (cobertura boscosa) of less than two hectares, or those lands with trees located in urban areas.
19 Extraction of flora, products, and byproducts: These are conditioned on the exceptions made by the Wildlife Law (Ley de la Vida Silvestre) and its Regulations related to research and nurseries.
20 Extraction of fauna: This variable is conditioned on the exceptions made by the Wildlife Law and its Regulations, related to research, zoos, nurseries, and pests; in the case of subsistence fishing, it must comply with current legislation (this does not signify a change in the conflict use).
21 Hotels – Camps – Restaurants: This is conditioned according to magnitude, location, and scope; they must also comply with current legislation. Camps correspond to those minor installations of permanent or temporary use for scientific or tourist purposes.
22 Cable car (Teleférico): It is understood that petitions will be made when there is a correct use of protection (forest, or underuse (subuso)), so the impact will be greater at the beginning, and during operation, noise, contact, trail deterioration, and others tend to decrease. All cable transport activities and aerial bridges are comprised within this.
23 Biological stations (Estaciones biológicas): In principle, applications could be submitted in areas of greater forest cover, but they are conditioned on the regulations of the current Law.
Symbols: Conditioned (o): Means that it is conditioned on the Forest Law (Ley Forestal), Articles 1, 19, and 34, as well as on the field visit; in cases required, the land-use capacity (capacidad de uso), current use, location of aquifer recharge zones (zonas de recarga acuífera), and protection zones according to Art. 34 must be determined. If there is suspicion of being in an aquifer recharge area or fragile area, SETENA's endorsement must be requested for any type of permit. It may also be subject to a good compensatory measure (medida de compensación) and subject to what is established by current laws. Field verifications must be carried out by officials; if carried out by regents (regentes), they must be accredited by the National Environmental and Energy Accreditation and Certification System (SACAE) for the corresponding activities.
Not permitted (-): Means that the requested activity is not compatible with the creation objectives of the Protected Wild Areas (ASP), and that it could represent a negative environmental impact, very significant, both to the project area and its environmental surroundings. Furthermore, the decision taken must be consistent with current legislation.
Permitted (+): Means that it is compatible with the creation purposes of the protected wild areas and the current laws. Furthermore, the proposed activity is permitted to the extent that it does not signify the development of a negative environmental impact of high significance for the project area and its environmental surroundings. If there is suspicion of being in an aquifer recharge area or fragile area, SETENA's endorsement must be requested for any type of permit, which must be subject to the necessary compensatory measures. This guide will support officials in resolving the application process, applying the following procedure for each case: a. With the help of the property location map (if doubt arises due to scale difference, field verification becomes necessary), determine on the Land-Use Conflict (Conflicto de uso de la Tierra) map the divergence class presented by the proposed area for the activity. b. Knowing the different conflict categories (underuse 1, correct use, overuse 3, etc.), locate in the "Guide" the type of proposed activity (agriculture, livestock, sawmills, infrastructure, etc.). c. Verify according to the "Guide" whether the activity is feasible to carry out. d. The previous recommendation must be complemented with the natural hazards map, wetlands map, information on fragile areas, productive activities map, and current regulations (if a specific Law exists, its mandate must be complied with), so that the synergistic effect of all the variables considered in this study is taken into account. e. In cases warranting environmental assessment (evaluación ambiental), it must comply with the requirements established by SETENA. f. When an application falls into the undefined category, field verification must be carried out. For those protected wild areas that do not have the land-use capacity information mentioned in this section 5.1.2. "Land-Use Conflict and Natural Hazards", officials may request complementary studies and/or carry out field verification to determine the land-use capacity. This information, complemented with the planning criteria, will allow the pertinent decision to be made for each application. In the previous exceptions, in cases of natural resource use activities for self-consumption (small non-commercial quantities) and in cases where, due to scale difference or land dimension, the conflict of use is not precisely determined, the following basic guide may be bypassed.
BASIC GUIDE TO SUPPORT THE APPLICATION PROCESS (*) (See Scope 34 of Gazette No. 92 of Tuesday, May 15, 2001.)
3.2. PLANNING MONITORING CRITERIA In this study, it was considered that monitoring criteria, such as conducting the environmental assessment, must be applied by SETENA, an entity to which the Organic Environmental Law (Ley Orgánica del Ambiente) grants the respective competence. It comprises, within its stages, the review of an Environmental Impact Study and the evaluation of corrective measures.
3.2.1. Environmental Assessment (Evaluación Ambiental) In our country, SETENA is responsible for the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), which is a legal-administrative procedure aimed at the identification, prediction, and interpretation of the environmental impacts that a project or activity would produce if executed, as well as their prevention, correction, and assessment, all with the purpose of being accepted, modified, or rejected by the different competent public administration entities. In general terms, the Environmental Impact Assessment is a necessary tool to mitigate the effects forced by situations characterized by: - Lack of synchronization between population growth, infrastructure growth, and the basic services destined for it. - Increasing demand for spaces and services as a consequence of population increase and mobility, and the growth of living standards. - Progressive degradation of the natural environment due mainly to: - Pollution and poor management of atmospheric, hydraulic, geological, soil (edafológicos), and landscape resources. - Disruption of biological equilibrium and eutrophic chains, as a consequence of the destruction of various plant and animal species. - Disturbances attributable to waste or residues, from both urban and industrial sources. - Poor management of historical-cultural heritage. Conducting environmental impact studies is important for several aspects, among them: - They halt the degenerative process of the environment. - They prevent serious ecological problems. - They improve our own surroundings and quality of life. - They help improve the project. - They defend and justify a sound solution. - They channel citizen participation. - Their control increases practical experience. - Current provisions require it. - They generate greater social awareness of the ecological problem. - They increase social demand as a consequence of the previous parameter. Many more reasons can be added, but the conclusion is clear: Environmental Impact Studies are necessary, and with this, the Project manager will also be responsible for ensuring it complies with local, non-governmental, national, and international environmental provisions and standards. It is said there is an environmental impact when an action or activity produces a favorable or unfavorable alteration in any of the components of the environment. This action can be an engineering project, a program, a plan, a law, or an administrative provision with environmental implications. The significance of an impact must be analyzed in different contexts, including society as a whole, the altered region, the affected interests, and the locality. The impacts generated by an activity can be positive and negative and must be identified and evaluated, both in terms of their magnitude and their importance. These can be direct and indirect, immediate and long-range; cumulative or not; reversible or irreversible. The duration of the activities can be short or long term, temporary or continuous. Likewise, the space covered by the activities can be local, regional, national, or global. Negative impacts stem from the loss of defined environmental values such as, to mention a few: losses in productivity and soil use capacity, loss of water and air quality, loss of biodiversity. They are also caused by activities such as: logging (paths and roads, buildings, hotels, etc.), humus removal, leveling, fillings, drainage; and waste (collection, waste disposal, treatment, reuse), among others. Impacts can affect aspects of a type: a) Ecological, b) Pollution (water, noise, air, soil), c) Aesthetic aspects (soil, air, biota, composition), d) Aspects of human interest (historical, cultural, educational and scientific values, lifestyles), e) Natural processes (erosion, flooding, landslides, etc.) There are occasions when impacts will not be remediable; in such cases, compensatory measures could then be considered. This work does not intend, nor is it contemplated within its objectives, to identify the impacts caused by specific projects.
3.2.2. Corrective Measures (Medidas Correctivas) When detected impacts and potential ones violate current norms, criteria, or policies for environmental protection and conservation, mitigation measures must be established before the execution of a project is approved, which must be approved by SETENA, according to the Organic Environmental Law, and it is so stated in the Conceptual Guide for the Preparation of Environmental Impact Studies (Orientador Conceptual para la elaboración de Estudios de Impacto Ambiental), published in the Gazette of November 1997 and in the section on: Corrective measures for environmental impacts, which textually indicates: "Measures must be presented to prevent, mitigate, control, avoid, and/or compensate all the analyzed impacts related to the project, work, or activity, and to natural hazards. These measures must be concrete, technically viable, and, when they require technological applications, they must have the corresponding designs." Each proposed mitigation measure must be considered as an activity, in the same way as the other activities to be carried out for the proposed project are considered. It is worth mentioning that the corrective measures noted below, as well as the concepts, only carry the missive of informing; to complement the information, the user can review, for example: Canter, L. 1997; Weitzenfeld H., 1996, World Bank, 1991. The World Bank and Weitzenfeld define mitigation measures as: "the implementation or application of any policy, strategy, work, or action, aimed at eliminating or minimizing the adverse impacts on the environment that may occur during the execution stages of a project (construction, operation, and termination) and improving environmental quality by taking advantage of existing opportunities." Mitigation measures can induce one or several of the following actions: - Avoid the total impact by not developing all or part of a project. When a project has implications for biological diversity but the problem is relatively simple and the project's nature allows it, the design can be modified to eliminate the problem (e.g., a change in the alignment of a road to avoid crossing a wildlife refuge). Otherwise, the problem must be explicitly incorporated into the scope of an environmental assessment or other study, where it will receive more detailed analysis and will be considered during the development of measures to mitigate adverse impacts. In the case of a dam, the need to build it can be avoided or deferred by reducing the demand for water or energy, applying conservation measures, improving efficiency, substituting fuels, etc. The possibility of locating the project on a river that already has a dam can be investigated, diversifying its functions. Install several small dams instead of one large one, provided the overall impact is less than the first alternative. - Minimize impacts by reducing the magnitude of the project. - Rectify the impact through the rehabilitation or restoration of the affected environment, according to its characteristics. - Reduce or eliminate the impact over time, through the implementation of preservation and maintenance operations during the project's useful life. - Compensate for the impact produced by replacing the affected resources. Within the corrective measures indicated above, the Organic Environmental Law points out that compensation for environmental damage has the purpose of determining, by qualitative and quantitative methods, the magnitude of the negative environmental impact, of an irreversible or long-term nature, generated by the project, to request that it compensate the environment, either in the very vicinity of the site where the negative impact occurred, or in a distant location. The fundamental idea of this principle is that the overall balance for the environment is positive. By way of example, the following "mitigating or compensatory measures" that a project planner could propose are considered: - Establish equivalent conservation units in other parts of the region to compensate for the inevitable loss in the project area, at a minimum ratio of 1:3, with a maintenance commitment. - Design protection zones, corridors for wildlife, and others to maximize the benefits of wildlife management areas or minimize the project's impacts on them. These could be recommended by the conservation area (área de conservación) according to the "Grúas" Project proposal, prepared by MINAE, 1996, or the one being recommended according to the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor Project (SINAC-MINAE). - Restore damaged habitats. - Create new habitats, such as artificial wetlands, artificial reefs, nesting sites for wild birds. - Control land use in the watershed (cuenca hidrográfica). - Implement reforestation and/or soil conservation activities in the watersheds. - Create usable land in areas that were previously not appropriate to compensate for losses. - Protect spawning sites. - Install fish passages. Among the institutional aspects of mitigation plans, the following could be included: - Environmental education - Strengthening of existing bodies responsible for administering the ASP - Support for scientific research related to biological diversity - Conservation incentives Community participation is fundamental for conserving biodiversity, especially in cases where the approach involves imposing restrictions on the use of lands enjoyed in common or considered domains of indigenous peoples. It is also important to seek dialogue with the affected groups.
3.2.3. Monitoring Indicators (Indicadores de seguimiento) The problems exerted on the areas under study are very varied and not very different from what occurs in other management categories. The major threats to wild areas include inappropriate development to promote tourism; unpaid land; lack of personnel to control the expansion of the agricultural frontier, urban growth, illegal logging, illegal fishing and hunting, squatting (precarismo); unplanned infrastructure of a legal or illegal type, development of other non-permitted activities such as: sanitary landfills or clandestine dumps. Planning must not remain only with current data; to continue with planning and with the updating of the information presented, as well as to control and monitor compliance with the policies and proposed planning, it is necessary to measure the indicators of the problem and the development of sustainable conservation policies. Below are suggested indicators that officials can monitor, as well as some policy ones mentioned; these could support the corrective measures required. The indicators described below will allow monitoring the scenario described in the previous sections; said indicators were developed based on all the reported problem areas. These indicators have been divided into short (1 to 3 years), medium (3 to 5 years), and long term (greater than 5 years).
A. Short-Term Monitoring Indicators a. Complaints for alteration of natural resources Complaints filed by private individuals and public officials for illegal use of Natural Resources (constructions, burns, hunting, logging, and others) within protected areas. Unit of Measure: Number of complaints filed by type and per unit of time. The purpose is to measure the degree of behavior of the problem, for example, whether the problem decreases or increases.
b. Rate of reforestation, natural regeneration, or conversion from forest uses to other uses.
Extent of the protected area with plant cover, which may be native or autochthonous, intervened or not, regenerated by natural succession or other techniques. Unit of Measure: Area in hectares of plant cover, including percentage of natural regeneration and percentage of forest plantations per unit of time. The purpose is to measure the recovery of the plant cover in the protected area.
c. Domain and acquisition of private property (tenure) Privately owned lands acquired within Protected Wild Areas defined and created by the State. Unit of Measure: Number of hectares of privately owned land within a wild area paid for per unit of time. This indicator aims to show the number of hectares acquired and owned by the State.
d. Annual visitation (tourism) This refers to tourism that visits the protected areas. Unit of measure: Number of visitors per unit of time and time of year. Its purpose is to generate data to be used in determining carrying capacity and to understand tourism use trends.
e. Clandestine dumps Generation and movement of solid waste within the area. Unit of Measure: Number of open-air dumps and buried waste. The purpose is to identify, eliminate, or relocate all dumps.
f. Spontaneous growth of populations (precarismo) Identify the different types of human settlements found within the protected area and those generated over time, excluding those of the IDA. Unit of measure: Number of settlements and settlers detected and evacuated per unit of time. The purpose is to measure the incidence of these groups and prevent the negative impacts caused by human influence, increase of the agricultural frontier, and control of these by the Conservation Area (AC).
g. Officials per area An assessment of human resources must be made in terms of number, discipline, and training according to the objectives and administration of the protected area. Unit of Measure: Number of officials per specialization category per Conservation Area (AC) and Protected Wild Area (ASP) according to the creation objectives. The purpose is to have the adequate minimum number of officials to fulfill the ASP's management and administration objectives. This indicator is considered indirect because its repercussions do not directly affect the land-use conflict.
B. Medium-Term Monitoring Indicators a. Incidence of affected areas and periodicity due to natural disasters Knowledge must be available (Map or zoning) of the areas presenting risks of natural hazards within and near the protected area for better decision-making; in addition to the natural hazards presented in this study, potential risks to the environment and anthropic infrastructure must be identified according to the recurrence periods of the events. Unit of Measure: Area in hectares affected by natural disasters per unit of time. The purpose is the zoning of existing or spontaneous natural hazard risks in the protected area.
b. Use of water resources within the ASPs Identify the types of use, their status, and increase in demand for water resources, and contribute to both the valuation of environmental services and the threats to this resource. Unit of Measure: Number of uses by type and per unit of time, characterizing it, for example: Intake, Irrigation, Electricity, and others. The purpose is to verify the different types of water resource use, their capacity, and utilization, in order to plan for their sustainability.
c. Knowledge of the potential of natural resources.
Application of the Research Strategy to improve knowledge of the protected area's biodiversity and thus facilitate planning and the development of sustainable policies in protected areas. Unit of Measure: List of flora and fauna species with threatened, reduced, and endangered populations. The purpose of this indicator is to have a clear vision of the current biodiversity of each of the protected areas, to take measures for the conservation of endangered species, and for the programming and scope of future research.
d. Livestock management (Equine, bovine, porcine, poultry, and others) The protected area must have a base record of managed farms and their extension. Unit of Measure: Number of farms managed per hectare and per unit of time. The purpose is to measure soil recovery in the protected area, regarding the soil compaction caused by livestock trampling and the decrease or increase in plant cover and eventual contamination resulting from these activities.
e. Areas with incentives for conservation.
Compensation by the State to forest owners and forest plantations for the environmental services they provide to the national and international community. Unit of Measure: Surface area of the conservation area that is under the Payment for Environmental Services (Pago de Servicios Ambientales, PSA) regime per unit of time. The purpose is to have a measure of the increase or decrease in the number of hectares being compensated through the environmental services system. This indicator is considered indirect because its repercussions do not directly affect the land-use conflict.
C. Long-Term Monitoring Indicators a. Changes in conflicting land use Changes recorded over time in the different land uses of the ASPs under study. Unit of Measure: Percentage of lands in each divergence category or conflicting use that change use per unit of time. The purpose of this indicator is to highlight changes in the different land uses; production or protection of land resources.
D. Future Indicators Depending on the resources available to the conservation areas and the type of evaluation required, the following indicators have greater coverage or specify specific problems, as they incorporate all the impacts occurring in each area and provide an overview of the problem areas. They are subject to modifications or adjustments. These indicators are based on environmental parameters that represent the basic characteristics of the environment; these are: - Water quality indicators - Air quality indicators - Soil indicators - Habitat suitability indicators (Bioindicators) - Human development and quality of life indicators.
- According to the analysis in this study, the existence of areas of overuse 1, 2, and 3 in protected wilderness areas is evident. Agricultural and urban expansion, as well as pressure on natural resources, have not followed any planning, understanding that there are sites suitable for this type of activities. The declaration of a protected area has allowed correct uses and underuse levels to be maintained; however, an analysis outside the protection category should be conducted to verify the foregoing. -In summary, 12.99% is in overuse (1, 2, and 3), 6.22% is in underuse, and correct use corresponds to 74.27%. - There is little institutional coordination (MINAE, ICT, municipalities, MAG, etc.) for the granting of permits, concessions, development of activities, etc. There must be more linkage among the managing entities, such as MINAE, municipalities, MAG, MOPT, and currently SETENA, among others, in the granting of a permit of any nature. - Historically, agricultural and livestock expansion has been erratic, and inherited generation after generation, without any orientation or planning. An example of this was the agrarian reform of the second half of the 20th century, where, in order to own a plot, it was necessary to replace the forest with pastures or annual crops. - Deficiencies were detected in the application and enforcement of institutional policies and legislation, in relation to the administration of the Protected Wilderness Areas (ASP) derived from the lack of economic resources, among other things. -It is concluded that, for a long time, a facilitating instrument for the land-use planning (ordenamiento) of activities at the protected wilderness area level has been required. The POA is a first attempt that must be supported and implemented. -With this study, it is possible to identify the territories of forest reserves (reservas forestales), protective zones (zonas protectoras), and wildlife refuges (refugios de vida silvestre) with the greatest problems; their use conflicts threaten the creation objectives of these areas; on the other hand, it allows identifying which of the three protection categories should be given priority for management and land acquisition. -The Central Pacific Conservation Area (Area de Conservación Pacífico Central) is the area with the highest number of hectares in overuse, 20,985.75 ha, a situation that may be associated with cultural patterns of land use. -10.58% of the total territory, comprised within the three categories, corresponds to IDA settlements. -The conservation areas (áreas de conservación) did not present the same level of detail regarding the requested information. To remedy the foregoing, a complete diagnosis must be carried out by the administration for each of the ASP to be planned (ordenar), which implies the compilation, preparation or updating, and integration of the following: Management plans (planes de manejo) for each area, natural resource inventories, land tenure (tenencia de tierra) studies; including other activities that were not reported at the time of this study (in mining, tourism, agricultural/livestock fields, etc.); all information must be standardized and captured at the same scale, at a minimum 1:50,000. - Regarding hydrological information, the scale used (1:200,000) limits the accuracy and quality of the information for the study at hand. - The lack of demarcation of private and state lands affects the non-identification of management priorities, a situation that ideally should be resolved in future updates of the Environmental Zoning Plan (Plan de Ordenamiento Ambiental), conceptualized as a dynamic process. - Due to the lack of information on groundwater, this variable was not contemplated in this work, constituting a limitation for the analysis in those areas whose purpose is the exploitation for drinking water. - 13 monitoring indicators were determined, the majority of which are for immediate application and follow-up. The combination of all will allow assessing the state of the areas, which may be determined as a multivariable, multi-criteria index that allows adequately prioritizing decision-making in each area. -The land tenure (tenencia de la tierra) situation in the conservation areas is quite delicate, and this is not new to some sectors. This condition points to one of the main reasons influencing the issues set forth in this document. Therefore, one of the system's goals must be the tireless search for funds to pay for lands whose environmental fragility (fragilidad ambiental) so indicates, or failing that, to seek alliances that allow the situation to become sustainable without harming any of the parties (owner – state).
4.2. RECOMMENDATIONS - This work must be completed in the future with the Environmental Fragility Indices (Indices de Fragilidad Ambiental, IFA), as an instrument of greater technical criteria, due to the large number of variables that are considered as a basis for the proposals for zoning of non-prohibitive but restrictive use, as defined in Resolución 588-97-SETENA published in La Gaceta of November 7, 1997. -In cases where an overuse has been generated by actions, conciliation mechanisms and incentives that tend to reverse the inadequate use must be established. - The Ministry of Environment and Energy, through SINAC, must manage the transfer of forest lands owned by State institutions (IDA, ICE, A y A, etc.) to the Forest Heritage (Patrimonio Forestal) in accordance with the Ley Forestal. -The Conservation Areas must coordinate actions with the IDA, in order to guarantee the sustainable use of the natural resources found within those areas (the conservation of resources). - SINAC must establish a Continuing Education Program for the officials of the Conservation Areas in the first instance, in order to apply the Environmental Zoning Plan (Plan de Ordenamiento Ambiental) rationally and in the most adequate manner. This program will be extended to other governmental and non-governmental entities. -MINAE must review the GRUAS project, in order to place the Protected Areas in the categories that correspond to them according to their geobiophysical and economic conditions. - SINAC must maintain a monitoring and evaluation commission for the Environmental Zoning Plan (Plan de Ordenamiento Ambiental) in order to incorporate updated information and make adjustments that allow correcting, improving, and incorporating new technical concepts. - The Conservation Areas must endeavor to carry out an aggressive environmental education effort in conjunction with local environmentalist organizations within the ASP, in the buffer zones (áreas de amortiguamiento), and the urban areas surrounding the Protected Areas. - Disseminate the scope of the Environmental Zoning Plan (Plan de Ordenamiento ambiental) at all levels, using all possible means of communication, not with a restrictive emphasis but rather an instructive one. -Develop a proposal for obtaining the funds and resources necessary to prepare a National Environmental Zoning Plan, not of a geographically limited type, that covers the entire territory so that it can be consulted by all public and private institutions for decision-making regarding development, investment, use, and conservation. - SINAC must promote the dissemination and application of national environmental policies that foster the conservation of the ASP. - The Conservation Areas must support the creation of voluntary community groups, local and cantonal committees, for the protection of the Protected Wilderness Areas (Áreas Silvestres Protegidas), and the search for solutions to environmental problems through different actions. As well as the search for alternatives for the creation of micro-enterprises, training, and technical assistance to promote natural resource management projects within the Protected Areas. - Direct environmental education with actions to make society aware of natural resource management, including topics such as contamination from waste of all kinds, use of organic-based fertilizers, waste recycling, environmental legislation, and fires, among others. -Rescue and centralize the information generated by national and international research centers regarding natural resource inventories and other topics of interest that allow for the planning and management of the ASP. - Promote the recovery of deteriorated areas through environmental restoration, natural succession, and the implementation of conservation works, among others. -Due to the fact that the POA considers only forest reserves (reservas forestales), protective zones (zonas protectoras), and wildlife refuges (refugios de vida silvestre), according to the provisions of Article 37 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente and its amendments; for future reviews of this plan, it is recommended to include other management categories. -The Conservation Areas must verify in the field the information presented in the POA on the land-use conflict maps as "No Definido", sending the collected information to the Geographic Information Systems component of MINAE, to reduce the extent under this category. - Given the large amount of regulations and how dispersed they are, it is advisable to compile them into a single analysis, if possible applied to the reality of the areas. - It is important to review and assess the Basic Guide of Zoning Criteria (Guía Básicas de los Criterios de Ordenamiento), in order to improve it over time based on the experience of its application. - The conservation areas must implement SINAC's strategic plans concerning: coordination, inter-institutional relations, participation of Civil Society (communities or organized groups, local and cantonal committees), technical assistance, research work, and strengthening of control actions, linked to the ASP. - Each conservation area must develop management plans (planes de manejo) for the different categories of protected wilderness areas, according to the policies set forth in the draft format of the Reglamento de Uso Público, in the process of formulation. - It is necessary to carry out the land-use capacity (capacidad de uso) assessment for those areas that currently do not have one, using the official methodology for this purpose. As an example, in the ZP Miravalles, ZP Tenorio, RF Grecia, and ZP Cerros de la Carpintera. - The efforts of the institutions must be redirected to reverse the degradation process to which lands under the overuse class 3 category are subjected, through compensation mechanisms (payment for environmental services, pago de servicios ambientales) and awareness resulting from adequate education. - The conservation areas must endeavor to carry out an aggressive environmental education effort in conjunction with local environmentalist organizations in the buffer zones (áreas de amortiguamiento) and the urban areas surrounding the protected areas. - The conservation areas must participate in the control and follow-up, whether of the proposed compensation and mitigation measures, as well as of the impacts caused by productive activities during the project and post-project stages; for this, SETENA must inform the conservation areas about the binding requirements assumed by the interested parties. - In the event that, due to the magnitude of the project and its alterations, the environmental impact assessment (estudio de impacto) is not required, SETENA must inform the conservation area of the environmental commitments that the interested party will implement. -For the identification of the "no definido" category shown on the Mapa de Conflicto de Uso de la Tierra, the ACs must carry out the necessary procedures before the corresponding instances and subsequently send it to the SINAC offices for incorporation into the database. -It is recommended that the felling of trees on land under agricultural/livestock use without forest cover (bosque) be prohibited in protected wilderness areas, for which Article 27 of the Ley Forestal N° 7575 must be modified.