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Res. 29023-2023 Sala Constitucional · Sala Constitucional · 08/11/2023
OutcomeResultado
The Chamber dismissed the action without reaching the merits because the claimant established neither diffuse-interest standing nor a pending underlying matter.La Sala rechazó la acción sin examinar el fondo porque el accionante no acreditó legitimación mediante un interés difuso ni acudió a partir de un asunto previo pendiente.
SummaryResumen
The Constitutional Chamber summarily dismissed an action seeking to invalidate Article 127 of the General Health Law and several treaty provisions that subject cannabis, tetrahydrocannabinol, and dronabinol to narcotic and psychotropic-substance controls. The claimant argued that prohibiting the cultivation and lawful commercialization of cannabis for recreational use violated health, human dignity, free development of personality, consumer rights, and Article 50 of the Constitution. The Chamber did not address those arguments on the merits because it found that the claimant lacked standing to present them directly as a defense of diffuse interests. According to the majority, the asserted interests were sufficiently determinate that the challenge had to arise from a pending underlying matter under the first paragraph of Article 75 of the Constitutional Jurisdiction Law. Justice Rueda Leal agreed with dismissal but separately explained that a particularized injury may retain its diffuse character when its effects genuinely spread throughout the community; he concluded that the challenged cannabis rules did not produce that kind of socially diffused impact here.La Sala Constitucional rechazó de plano la acción que pretendía invalidar el artículo 127 de la Ley General de Salud y diversas disposiciones de tratados internacionales que someten el cannabis, el tetrahidrocannabinol y el dronabinol a controles sobre estupefacientes y sustancias psicotrópicas. El accionante sostuvo que la prohibición de cultivar y comercializar cannabis para consumo recreativo vulneraba la salud, la dignidad, el libre desarrollo de la personalidad, los derechos del consumidor y el artículo 50 constitucional. La Sala no examinó el fondo de esos argumentos porque determinó que el promovente carecía de legitimación para plantearlos directamente como defensa de intereses difusos. Según la mayoría, el interés invocado correspondía a derechos o intereses determinados que debían sustentarse en un asunto previo pendiente, conforme al artículo 75, párrafo primero, de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional. El magistrado Rueda Leal coincidió con el rechazo, aunque explicó separadamente que una afectación particular puede conservar carácter difuso cuando verdaderamente se extiende a la colectividad, circunstancia que no encontró en este caso.
Key excerptExtracto clave
Therefore: The action is summarily dismissed. Justice Garro Vargas records a note. Justice Rueda Leal records separate reasons. In the claimant’s case, as the Majority states, the challenged rules do not produce a socially diffused harm, but rather a determinate one. Thus, what is apparent here is a situation that, although it may be shared by some group of people, does not have an effect of sufficient magnitude to be regarded as a diffuse interest. For that reason, I agree with the Majority in dismissing this action, although on the grounds set out above.Por tanto: Se rechaza de plano la acción. La Magistrada Garro Vargas consigna nota. El Magistrado Rueda Leal consigna razones diferentes. En el caso del accionante, tal como refiere la Mayoría, la normativa impugnada no produce una afectación socialmente difuminada, sino determinada. De modo que, en este caso, lo que se vislumbra es una situación que, si bien puede ser compartida por algún grupo de personas, ese efecto no es de tal magnitud como para considerarlo un interés difuso. Por el motivo expuesto coincido con la Mayoría en desestimar esta acción; empero, con la fundamentación expuesta.
Pull quotesCitas destacadas
"Su defensa tiene como finalidad satisfacer una necesidad de la sociedad como tal, por ello, es trascendente a la de un ser humano individual o colectivamente considerado."
"Its defense is intended to satisfy a need of society as such and therefore transcends the need of a human being considered individually or collectively."
Razones diferentes del magistrado Rueda Leal
"Su defensa tiene como finalidad satisfacer una necesidad de la sociedad como tal, por ello, es trascendente a la de un ser humano individual o colectivamente considerado."
Razones diferentes del magistrado Rueda Leal
"El interés, en estos casos, se encuentra difuminado, diluido (difuso) entre una pluralidad no identificada de sujetos."
"In these cases, the interest is dispersed, diluted (diffuse) among an unidentified plurality of persons."
Jurisprudencia citada en las razones diferentes
"El interés, en estos casos, se encuentra difuminado, diluido (difuso) entre una pluralidad no identificada de sujetos."
Jurisprudencia citada en las razones diferentes
"No se trata por ende de que cualquier persona pueda acudir a la Sala Constitucional en tutela de cualesquiera intereses (acción popular), sino que todo individuo puede actuar en defensa de aquellos bienes que afectan a toda la colectividad nacional, sin que tampoco en este campo sea válido ensayar cualquier intento de enumeración taxativa."
"It does not follow that any person may petition the Constitutional Chamber to protect any interest whatsoever through an actio popularis; rather, every individual may defend those interests affecting the entire national community, and no attempt at an exhaustive enumeration is valid in this field."
Jurisprudencia citada en las razones diferentes
"No se trata por ende de que cualquier persona pueda acudir a la Sala Constitucional en tutela de cualesquiera intereses (acción popular), sino que todo individuo puede actuar en defensa de aquellos bienes que afectan a toda la colectividad nacional, sin que tampoco en este campo sea válido ensayar cualquier intento de enumeración taxativa."
Jurisprudencia citada en las razones diferentes
"Recordemos que para que un interés sea considerado “difuso”, no solo debe afectar una colectividad, sino también debe difuminarse, difundirse en esa colectividad. Si no produce tal efecto, no puede ser considerado un interés difuso."
"For an interest to be considered “diffuse,” it must not only affect a community but must also be dispersed or spread throughout that community. If it does not produce that effect, it cannot be regarded as a diffuse interest."
Razones diferentes del magistrado Rueda Leal
"Recordemos que para que un interés sea considerado “difuso”, no solo debe afectar una colectividad, sino también debe difuminarse, difundirse en esa colectividad. Si no produce tal efecto, no puede ser considerado un interés difuso."
Razones diferentes del magistrado Rueda Leal
Full documentDocumento completo
1 Case File: 23-026204-0007-CO Decision No. 2023-029023 CONSTITUTIONAL CHAMBER OF THE SUPREME COURT OF JUSTICE. San José, at twelve forty-five on ocho de noviembre de dos mil veintitrés.
Constitutional challenge (acción de inconstitucionalidad) filed by Nombre29698, a Costa Rican citizen, an adult, an attorney, bar membership number 34775, a resident of San José, identity card number CED24155; against Article 127 of the General Health Law, which prohibits and subjects to destruction the cultivation of hemp or marijuana (cannabis indica and cannabis sativa); line 27 of the list entitled “Narcotic Drugs Included in Schedule I” of the Schedule to the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 30 de mayo de 1961, approved by Costa Rica through Law No. 4544 of 18 de marzo de 1970, as amended in turn by the Protocol Amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, Law No. 5168 of 25 de enero de 1973, which includes cannabis, cannabis resin, and cannabis extracts and tinctures in that Schedule; line 32 of the list entitled “Substances Included in Schedule I” of the Schedule to the Vienna Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 21 de febrero de 1971, approved by Costa Rica through Law No. 4990 of 10 de junio de 1972, which includes tetrahydrocannabinol, its isomers, and its stereochemical variants; line 16 of the list entitled “Substances Included in Schedule II” of the Schedule to the Vienna Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 21 de febrero de l97l, approved by Costa Rica through Law No. 4990 of 10 de junio de 1972, which includes dronabinol delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its stereochemical variants, thereby regulating them as unauthorized substances subject to the application of the Law on Narcotic Drugs, Psychotropic Substances, Unauthorized-Use Drugs, Related Activities, Money Laundering, and Terrorist Financing, Law No. 8204.
Background:
In the war against cannabis use, the defeated are the human rights to health, human dignity, and the free development of personality; the victors are criminal organizations and arms manufacturers. The prohibitionist policies governing the lawful trade in cannabis contained in the challenged provisions, which are based on the false premise of protecting health by restricting access to cannabis and activities related to its use, have proven ineffective in achieving that objective; demand for cannabis continues to increase, and the fostering of unlawful activities constitutes a clear violation of Article 50 of the Political Constitution. By contrast, although liberal policies have been criticized on the ground that openly available cannabis would increase consumption among the population, report findings show that legalization has little to no impact on overall cannabis use among young people.
The applicant presents the findings of the study “So far, so good What We Know About Marijuana Legalization in Colorado, Washington, Alaska, Oregon and Washington DC,” conducted by Drug Police Alliance ORG. The Washington State Healthy Youth Survey, administered every two years in even-numbered years and based on a representative sample of Washington students in grades 6, 8, 10, and 12, found no significant trends in cannabis use among young people between 2002 and 2014, two years after legalization. Between 2012 and 2014, the percentage of students in grades 8 and 10 who reported using cannabis in the previous 30 days increased only minimally, while the percentages in grades 6 and 12 remained unchanged. In both 2012 and 2014, 26.7% of grade 12 students reported using cannabis in the previous 30 days. In 2014, 18.1% of grade 10 students reported using cannabis in the previous 30 days, compared with 19.3% in 2012.
The overall rate of cannabis use among young people also remained stable. Similar findings for primary- and secondary-school children appear in the Colorado Healthy Kids Survey. The number of young people reporting that they had used cannabis in the previous 30 days declined from 25% in 2009, 3 years before legalization, to 21.2%; overall rates of cannabis use among young people also remained stable. In 2009, 43% of young people in Colorado reported having used cannabis at some point, compared with 38% in 2015. The same study also demonstrated that crime and arrest rates for cannabis-related offenses declined dramatically, while the psychological-health benefit of no longer having to worry about people committing violent crimes is immeasurable. Arrests for the possession, cultivation, and distribution of cannabis declined dramatically in every state that legalized it and in Washington, D.C, saving jurisdictions millions of dollars and preventing the criminalization of thousands of people.
In Colorado, arrests declined by 46% between 2012 and 2014. In Washington, they declined by 98% between 2011 and 2013. In Washington, D.C, arrests declined by 85%. In light of the foregoing, the challenged provisions concerning the lawful trade in cannabis, which deny the rights of cannabis users, cause more harm to public health than liberal policies do, rather than protecting it. Cannabis does not pose a serious threat to public health because, the applicant insists, its harms can easily be reversed, and the most serious harms arise from prohibitionist policies and the lack of effective intervention in children’s schools to prevent access at an early age. Furthermore, people have the right to control their own bodies and freely develop their personalities in the manner they deem most appropriate, provided that this does not entail a complete loss of health—as lawful substances such as tobacco and alcohol do—and does not harm third parties.
Regarding the right of access to justice, the applicant maintains that consumers’ access to justice is an important aspect of consumer law and concerns consumers’ ability to seek redress when their rights are violated by businesses or suppliers of goods and services. Consumers may face various problems, including misleading advertising, defective products, unfair contracts, and dishonest business practices. To address these problems, consumers must have access to fair, effective, and accessible legal proceedings through which to seek redress. Consumer access to justice, however, is often limited by several factors. One is consumers’ lack of information and legal knowledge, which makes it difficult for them to know what their rights are and how to seek redress. Moreover, many consumers may lack the financial resources to hire an attorney or pay the costs associated with filing a lawsuit. Another factor limiting consumer access to justice is the complexity of legal systems and the linguistic or cultural barriers that may hinder communication and comprehension of legal proceedings.
To address these problems, governments and other organizations have developed various initiatives to improve consumer access to justice. These may include creating regulatory agencies to protect consumer rights, promoting consumer-rights education and awareness campaigns, providing free or low-cost legal advice and assistance, and simplifying legal proceedings to make them more accessible to consumers. In summary, access to justice for cannabis consumers is a fundamental right that ensures consumers can enforce their rights and seek effective redress when they are subjected to unfair or misleading business practices. By enacting the challenged provisions, the Costa Rican State unconstitutionally denies this right. The applicant refers to the principles of proportionality and reasonableness. The applicant states that the first step in conducting the proportionality review (examen de proporcionalidad) requires verifying the existence of a legitimate aim, which, in turn, requires identifying the aims pursued by State action and determining whether those aims may be considered constitutionally legitimate.
Scrutiny of the purpose of State action begins from the premise that a fundamental right is being limited because, although fundamental rights must be protected to the fullest extent, they are not “absolute”; they have a certain relativity and may therefore be subject to restrictions. The test thus consists of identifying which limitations on human rights are constitutionally legitimate. Taking these two aspects into account, the constitutional-aim requirement is grounded in the fact that fundamental rights may be interfered with because of their relative nature, but not every interference with them may be considered constitutionally valid, given their optimization mandate (mandato de optimización). Senseless or arbitrary interference with one or more fundamental rights has no place in a constitutional democracy. It is therefore important to determine which aim may be regarded as legitimate for purposes of permitting interference with a fundamental right.
In all the other elements involved in proportionality scrutiny (escrutinio de proporcionalidad), establishing the aim pursued by the measure is essential to reviewing its constitutionality, particularly at the suitability stage (idoneidad), because only after the aim has been established and its legitimacy determined can it be examined whether the legislative action is suitable for helping to advance that aim. This is because the suitability analysis examines the means-end relationship. The applicant argues that, in this specific case, the purpose of the provision is to protect public health under Article 21 of the Political Constitution, based on the premise that cannabis use causes a public-health and public-order problem insofar as it creates dependency in users and causes certain minor and reversible harms, thereby conferring constitutional legitimacy upon the provision. In view of the foregoing, because the challenged provisions pursue the legitimate aim of addressing the public-health and public-order problems caused by cannabis use, they pass this first stage of proportionality scrutiny.
Suitability scrutiny focuses on the correlation between the chosen means and the right or aim that the means seek to advance through their implementation. This examination is required by the right claimed to have been impaired. Thus, several questions arise from the standpoint of the restricted right. If a person must endure a restriction on a right, it is expected, at a minimum, that the means will be capable of furthering the achievement of the aim or the rights being promoted. Otherwise, the grounds invoked to justify that restriction collapse from an empirical standpoint. The central issue at this stage is whether the relationship by which the means further the State’s aim has been demonstrated. That relationship may be assessed by considering different relevant aspects: a quantitative aspect, a qualitative aspect, and a probabilistic aspect. Accordingly, the fact that cannabis causes harm to health, even if the harm is minor and easily reversible, as will be demonstrated, establishes the suitability of prohibitionist measures against its use, because they seek to prevent the population from using it; the measures therefore pass this second stage of proportionality scrutiny.
Necessity scrutiny (escrutinio de necesidad)—or scrutiny of less harmful alternative means—seeks to ensure that restrictive State action is strictly necessary to achieve the stated aims, which occurs only when the measure is the least restrictive of the affected right and no less burdensome options are available to achieve the aim pursued. A measure restricting a right is unjustified and excessive if the aim can be achieved through a different, less harmful or restrictive means. The necessity test (test de necesidad) must analyze the following elements: a means-end relationship; the existence of more appropriate means; a comparison of alternatives for achieving the aim, with those alternative means compared in terms of their relationship to the State’s aim and their suitability; and, finally, the intensity-right relationship, determining which means is least harmful. The alternative measures need not be the most optimal among those available.
This is a form of suitability analysis using a fixed-comparison model. The alternative measures must further the aim in the relevant respects in which the selected means was examined under the suitability test and in accordance with the aim or aims pursued by the provision. This analysis may show that, compared with the selected means, the alternative means is not equally suitable, is equally suitable, or is more suitable. Thus, the alternative measure must impose a lesser restriction on the affected rights and, by reducing the restriction in whole or in part, empirically enable their observance to be promoted more effectively. With respect to the lesser burden on the restricted right, it may be: a) total: the alternative means furthers the aim but does not restrict the affected right; or b) partial: it restricts the right to a lesser extent.
In this manner, the Costa Rican State did not balance less restrictive alternatives to fundamental rights, even though it could implement measures that fulfill the aim of protecting public health and public order, entail a lesser restriction, and are suitable for protecting those interests, under a framework similar to the one already used to control lawful substances harmful to health, such as alcohol and tobacco—sale only to adults and penalties for facilitating minors’ access to these substances, no advertising, prohibition of consumption in public places, education, rehabilitation of persons with addiction, criminal prohibition of driving while intoxicated, and a market regulated by public-health authorities. It cites an opinion of the First Chamber of the Supreme Court of the Nation of the United Mexican States and concludes that the challenged provisions are highly overinclusive, broader and more restrictive than necessary, because they restrict essential activities related to cannabis consumption, even though measures—proven in comparative law (derecho comparado)—exist that are less restrictive of fundamental rights, are equally suitable or provide more effective protection of health and public order, and entail less interference with or infringement of the right.
Accordingly, the challenged provisions fail this stage of proportionality review (escrutinio de proporcionalidad), and they must be declared unconstitutional. The final stage is proportionality review in the strict sense, or balancing (ponderación), and concerns the weighing of the affected fundamental right against the governmental objective causing the infringement, in order to determine whether the benefit arising from the purpose of the provision justifies the severity of the infringement of the fundamental right. A restriction imposed by State action on a right may be suitable and necessary, yet excessive. This occurs when the weight of the grounds supporting the importance of the objective the State seeks to achieve does not exceed the weight of the arguments favoring avoidance of the severity of the restriction; the interference is then disproportionate in the broad sense. It reiterates that the harm to health and public order caused by prohibitionist policies is greater than that caused by liberal policies, and that the latter have a lesser impact in restricting rights; accordingly, the measure also fails this stage of the proportionality test.
It again cites the opinion of the Supreme Court of the Nation of the United Mexican States. It concludes that the measure is legitimate because it protects health and public order, and is suitable because, as a prohibitionist policy, the State seeks to prevent individuals from consuming cannabis; however, it fails the second and third stages because it is highly overinclusive and far more extensive than necessary, given the existence of alternative measures that would cause less infringement of the fundamental rights at issue, and it is disproportionate in the strict sense because it does not provide effective and demonstrable protection of health and public order. Rather, it is harmful to those interests because of the activities resulting from prohibition, and it constitutes a severe infringement of cannabis consumers’ human rights to make decisions concerning their own health and to the free development of personality (libre desarrollo de la personalidad), by prohibiting the activities essential to engaging in lawful commerce.
It argues that the harm principle (principio de lesividad), also called the offensiveness principle (principio de ofensividad), is expressly recognized as a constitutional standard and constitutes one of the grounds supporting and justifying the exercise of criminal prosecution (acción penal), particularly the effectiveness of its punitive or sanctioning nature. The essential feature of this principle is directly related to the objective of protecting legally protected interests (bienes jurídicos), which is pursued through criminal prosecution and may be summarized in a few words, since understanding it requires only knowing that no offense exists unless the acts “harm morals or public order or prejudice third parties,” and that State intervention through legislation will not be unlawful when injury to or endangerment of those interests is proven, because where no such serious legal injury exists, State action must not be exercised and, if it is, that action becomes irrational and disproportionate.
If a reason is sought for the need to impose limits on the operation of criminal law (derecho penal), it is found in the burdensome nature of punitive action, over which the State holds a monopoly, and the severe disruption it causes in the life of the person subjected to it. For that reason, it is not enough merely to establish such injury; the injury must also be significant or serious in order to warrant the intervention of criminal law. Scientific, legal, and social evidence establishes that harmful legal substances such as tobacco and alcohol cause substantially greater harm to health and public order than cannabis; nevertheless, the State has acted arbitrarily and without neutrality in making the latter illegal. If the State considers cannabis harmful to society and therefore finds it necessary to go so far as to apply prohibitionist policies through criminal law to the activities essential to its consumption, in an effort to prevent cannabis use despite its reversible and minimally harmful effects, it is a de facto contradiction to permit legal substances that can in fact cause death, thereby demonstrating discrimination against and arbitrary persecution of cannabis consumers.
In 2010, the English medical journal The Lancet, based in New York and Hong Kong, published a scientific study establishing that alcohol is more harmful to society than heroin or crack cocaine. The research examined 20 drugs and substances of abuse and compared their effects on both the individual and society. According to the study, the drugs most harmful to the individual are heroin, crack cocaine, and methamphetamine, whereas those causing the greatest social harm are alcohol, heroin, and crack cocaine. The most interesting results, however, emerge when both dimensions are considered simultaneously: harm to the individual and harm to society. According to Professor David Nutt, director of the Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs, if substances of abuse were classified on the basis of their combined harm, alcohol would be a “Class A” drug, like heroin and crack cocaine. Nutt, one of the report’s authors, is a former British government adviser who was dismissed in 2009 because of his controversial position on the official classification of drugs.
It sets out the results of a study and states that, if the indisputable public-health harms of tobacco and alcohol are considered, and if Articles 128 and 130 of Ley General de la Salud nro. Placa5174 were applied, those substances would have to be prohibited. It argues that this must be contrasted with the harm to public health caused by cannabis consumption. It asserts that, despite conducting an extensive, though not exhaustive, search for scientific studies by public or private institutions reporting the mortality rate caused by cannabis consumption, no study, research, or official publication could be found linking cannabis consumption to a cause of death. This is demonstrated by the study “Social and Health Effects of Nonmedical Cannabis Use, Organización Panamericana de la Salud-OMS 20/6,” which states that the health harms resulting from cannabis consumption are mild and reversible; in no instance can cannabis consumption be associated with and established as a direct and indisputable cause of death with complete certainty.
Where it is linked to a cause of death, the scientific studies are inconsistent, few in number, and also conditioned on other aspects of individuals’ lives. The truly serious harms, which are difficult or impossible to remedy, lie in prohibition. The study conducted by Organización Panamericana de la Salud and Organización Mundial de la Salud identifies treatable and reversible illnesses, but it neither conclusively determines nor provides an approximate number of deaths or direct and substantial causes of mortality from cannabis consumption; as that study makes clear, it identifies only disparate and inconsistent associations. This does not mean that those effects are unimportant—indeed, they warrant significant informational intervention concerning their effects and prevention, especially during childhood—but rather that they lose significance when compared with lawful harmful substances, because most of those effects are reversible and curable within a short period, particularly when cannabis is not consumed by smoking.
As was also established in the judgment issued in amparo en revisión 237/2014 by the First Chamber of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation of the United Mexican States, those harms are very mild and reversible. Any illness or condition resulting from substance use is less harmful to public health than a person’s death, because it means that the person can recover rather than die. The public-health consequences resulting from alcohol and tobacco consumption are difficult or impossible to remedy. This does not establish that cannabis causes no deaths, but, as stated, no studies have been found identifying causes of death for which cannabis consumption is the principal cause. The consulted OPS/OMS study does not demonstrate risks of death from consumption, although it does identify treatable and curable illnesses and conditions. As the scientific evidence extensively shows, the individual and social health harms of cannabis are reversible.
For the reasons set out herein, it is argued that the challenged provisions openly violate the constitutional harm principle: the State cannot unlawfully deem harmful, restrict, and punish activities associated with recreational consumption of the cannabis plant, such as cultivating, trading, manufacturing, processing, refining, transforming, extracting, preparing, producing, transporting, or storing it, on the ground that they are harmful to public health when they are disproportionately less harmful to public health than other acts involving the use and consumption of lawful substances; this presents a legal contradiction. It demonstrates an arbitrary moral judgment by the Costa Rican State that is neither scientific nor, still less, just. Because there is no injury to public health more serious than that caused by other substances used for recreational purposes that are not prohibited by the State, and because cannabis consumption is closely related to the right to acts of free disposition over the human body (actos de libre disposición del cuerpo humano)—the power to do with our bodies whatever we deem most appropriate, provided that it does not contravene rules of public order or good morals or entail a diminution of bodily integrity and health—the challenged provisions violate the constitutional standard imposed by the harm principle.
It refers to the principle of last resort (principio de última ratio). Given the gravity involved in exercising criminal prosecution, including subjection to a penalty, criminal law must be used only in circumstances in which measures from other branches of law, such as administrative law, have been insufficient or ineffective in remedying the harm or danger. Criminal prosecution is therefore said to be the last resort (última ratio); that is, it must be invoked on a subsidiary basis because it entails very serious sanctions that restrict fundamental rights as essential as personal liberty. By virtue of the nature of criminal prosecution, the State exercises its power to punish conduct that harms significant legally protected interests.
It is argued that criminal law (derecho penal) constitutes the exercise of legitimate violence and should be used only for highly serious conduct. For those reasons, if the resulting social problem can be addressed through measures less harmful than criminal prosecution (acción penal), it considers that those are the measures the State should use. The principle of last resort (principio de última ratio), also known as subsidiarity (subsidiaridad) or minimal intervention (intervención mínima), is a principle directed at the legislature, which has the authority to define unlawful conduct subject to criminal punishment, thereby establishing the scope of criminal conduct; the principle also has implications for the application and interpretation of criminal law. That power to prohibit is not absolute. Conduct causing insignificant harm cannot be criminalized. Accordingly, the exercise of punitive power (poder punitivo) is limited; it is a power subject to constitutional parameters, as is characteristic of every liberal State governed by the rule of law (Estado liberal de derecho).
Given the severity inherent in criminal prosecution, such as being subjected to punishment, criminal law should be used only in circumstances in which other measures from other branches of law, such as administrative law, intended to remedy the harm or danger have proved insufficient or ineffective. Criminal prosecution is therefore said to be the last resort, meaning that it must be invoked on a subsidiary basis because it entails extremely serious penalties that restrict fundamental rights as essential as personal liberty. That power to prohibit is not absolute. Conduct causing insignificant harm cannot be criminalized. Accordingly, the exercise of punitive power is limited; it is a power subject to constitutional parameters, as is characteristic of every liberal State governed by the rule of law. It considers that the State has also violated this constitutional standard of insignificance and last resort by failing to make a genuine determination of the facts and failing to act in accordance with science and basic principles of justice, logic, or expediency, without even having attempted other measures to address the problem—as required by the principle of last resort, under which criminal prosecution applies only when other measures have proved insufficient—a problem of little significance in the case of cannabis consumption when compared with other lawfully used substances, such as alcohol and tobacco, which are disproportionately more harmful to health and public order.
Prohibitionist policies (políticas prohibicionistas) regarding cannabis consumption and the related activities essential to exercising that right represent criminal law at its maximum, as is characteristic of authoritarianism and State paternalism, whereas liberal policies represent criminal law at its minimum, as is characteristic of the liberal State governed by the rule of law and of the individual as the center and ultimate purpose of the law. Regarding the principle of insignificance (principio de insignificancia), it states that this principle makes it possible to dispense with the intrusion of criminal law into actions that, because of the slight harm or insignificant injury they cause to protected legal interests (intereses jurídicos tutelados), do not justify criminal-law intervention (intervención penal). This principle arises from the republican principle (principio republicano)—which derives from the principle of proportionality (principio de proporcionalidad)—and is connected to and enriched by the principles of last resort and harmfulness (lesividad).
Thus, the principle of insignificance leads to the dismissal of criminal prosecution for conduct where criminal-law intervention would be disproportionate to the injury to the legally protected interest (bien jurídico). This principle is a tool for the legislature when drafting legislation: given the injury to the legally protected interest and the penalty to be established, a proportionality assessment must be conducted between the harm and the criminal consequences of the action. By disregarding the principle of insignificance, the legislation unconstitutionally legitimizes criminal prosecution through the challenged provisions (normas impugnadas), which in practice is reflected in the fact that many judges invoke the false premise of harm to public health and impose punishment based on presumed harm that they do not prove, instead trusting that the legislature has effectively demonstrated the harm to legal interests.
It states that insignificant conduct is punished with penalties that most severely impair the freedoms of the liberal State governed by the rule of law in which we live, thereby violating the constitutional mandate contained in numeral 28. It asserts that this demonstrates how a high court understands the scope of the principle of insignificance but fails to apply it, using as an excuse harm to health and public order that loses its significance when compared with lawful substances such as tobacco and alcohol, given their extremely high mortality rates and the harm they cause to health and public order. It quotes an excerpt from judgment no. 074-2001 of the Third Chamber and states that the defendant in that case was subjected to the harshest consequences of criminal law and to penalties similar to those imposed on a murderer, torturer, rapist, pedophile, kidnapper, or corrupt official who commits bribery, merely for planting and tending a crop so that it would produce a successful harvest.
As the Chamber itself stated, he was in a remote location amid brush connected to his home, watering and tending eight cannabis plants when he was intercepted by members of the rural guard—had that intrusion never occurred, it is likely that no third party would ever have been disturbed, other than through the moral prejudices of the authoritarian State. Although it was not proven that the plants were intended for sale, Chamber III presumed as much, disregarding the principle of reasonable doubt in favor of the accused (in dubio pro reo) and the principle of insignificance. It states that if, according to the evidence presented, the harm caused by cannabis to health and public order is slight, the question is why the Chamber considers that harm to be so substantial as to require prison sentences ranging from 8 to 15 years, like those used to punish acts as serious and harmful as murder or rape.
It indicates that the Third Chamber failed to apply neutral judgment and to safeguard the Constitution because it did not establish the harm beyond dispute. It simply trusts that the legislature properly demonstrated that harm and the necessity of criminal prosecution. Because of the blatant moral prejudice of the State and the Third Chamber—the purported protector of the Constitution—that man had to endure the most burdensome consequences of our criminal justice system for planting and tending his cannabis plants, involving a substance less harmful than lawful substances such as alcohol and tobacco. The question then arises: where is the harm to public health? Had it not been for the unconstitutional intrusion of the authoritarian and arbitrary State, no harm would ever have occurred beyond the mild and reversible harm to the health of Mr. Nombre29699.; the true harm to health was suffered by that person, who lost a significant part of his life behind bars while wondering why developing his personality freely led to his being branded antisocial and deserving of the State’s most extreme repression of sacred liberty.
The legislature did not balance the rights involved, thereby violating the principle of insignificance, and punishes insignificant conduct with disproportionate penalties; the challenged provisions are therefore unconstitutional. It refers to the principle prohibiting arbitrariness (principio de interdicción de la arbitrariedad). It states that, in enacting the challenged provisions, the Costa Rican State disregards the established facts, relies on nonexistent evidence, ignores existing evidence, dispenses entirely with the applicable legal grounds, commits an unforgivable error of fact and law, and acts arbitrarily. Consequently, the challenged provisions violate the prohibition against arbitrariness. It also alleges a violation of the principle of sharing public burdens (principio de sostenimiento de las cargas públicas). By adopting prohibitionist policies governing activities related to cannabis consumption, which seriously infringe fundamental rights, cannabis consumers are placed in an unequal position regarding the sharing of public burdens associated with protecting health and public order.
People who are in the same situation because they consume substances that may harm health and public order—such as tobacco and alcohol—even enjoy a less excessive limitation that does not affect the essence of their rights, unlike cannabis consumers, although cannabis is a substance proven to cause only extremely minor or slight, readily remediable harm to health when compared with lawful substances that cause exponentially more serious harm to health and public order that is impossible or difficult to remedy—such as tobacco and alcohol. That factual situation creates inequality for cannabis consumers in the sharing of public burdens—the protection of health and public order—compared with people who consume lawful substances such as alcohol, tobacco, or even sugar. The first group, consisting of persons who consume lawful substances that affect health and public order, is subject to restrictions that are less harmful to the exercise of their rights to make decisions concerning their health, dignity, and free development of personality when consuming those substances, compared with the second group, cannabis consumers, who are subjected to substantially greater restrictions of their rights for an action that causes little harm to health and public order.
It concludes that the policy prohibiting a lawful market for cannabis consumption is based on prejudice grounded in moral judgments rather than scientific studies, revealing that the State has not acted with ethical neutrality. The State has adopted a paternalistic position through which it treats citizens as though they were not sufficiently rational beings capable of making their own decisions, an approach that could be taken to the extreme of prohibiting substances such as tobacco, alcohol, sugar, fat, or caffeine. It therefore insists that the challenged provisions restrict essential rights related to cannabis consumption and are incompatible with the standards imposed by the principle of proportionality because they are unnecessary and disproportionate in the strict sense (desproporcionada en sentido estricto); with the principle of harmfulness because the conduct does not cause serious harm; with the principle of last resort because the State did not rule out less restrictive measures; with the principle of insignificance because they impose the most extreme punishment for conduct causing insignificant or minor reversible harm; with the prohibition against arbitrariness because they reflect a whim of the State that disregards science, expediency, and justice; and with equality in the sharing of public burdens (igualdad en sostenimiento de las cargas públicas) because they discriminate against cannabis consumers by restricting their rights more severely under a prohibitionist regime than under the regulated and more liberal regime enjoyed by consumers of alcohol and tobacco with respect to the shared burden of protecting health and public order.
It requests that the action be granted so that persons may “exercise the essential related rights inherent in cannabis consumption, such as planting, cultivation, harvesting, preparation, processing, possession, transportation, supply, application, use, and sale and, generally, every act related to consumption of the cannabis plant within lawful commerce that guarantees the consumer’s fundamental right.”
Justice Castillo Víquez authored the opinion; and,
Considering:
This Chamber has repeatedly held that an action of unconstitutionality is a proceeding subject to specific formalities that must necessarily be fulfilled before this Court may validly rule on the merits. Article 75 of the Law on Constitutional Jurisdiction governs standing to bring actions of unconstitutionality and provides for different circumstances. The first paragraph requires the existence of a pending matter, whether before a court—including habeas corpus or amparo proceedings—or before an administrative body—through the procedure for exhausting administrative remedies—in which the unconstitutionality of the challenged provision is invoked as a reasonable means of protecting the right or interest alleged to have been infringed in the principal matter. The second and third paragraphs govern direct actions—without requiring an underlying matter—in the following circumstances: a) when, due to the nature of the matter, there is no individual and direct injury; b) when the action concerns the defense of diffuse interests or interests affecting the community as a whole; and c) when the action is brought by the Procurador General de la República, the Contralor General de la República, the Fiscal General de la República, or the Defensor de los Habitantes.
In judgment nro. 04190-95 at 11:33 hours on 28 de julio de 1995, this Court specified that an action of unconstitutionality is:
“(…) a proceeding incidental in nature, rather than a direct or popular action, meaning that a matter must be pending resolution—whether before the courts or through the procedure for exhausting administrative remedies—in order to obtain access to constitutional review, provided that the action constitutes a reasonable means of protecting the right alleged to have been infringed in the principal matter, such that the Constitutional Court’s decision has a positive or negative effect on that pending proceeding because it addresses the constitutionality of the provisions to be applied in that matter; only by way of exception does the law permit direct access to this avenue—the circumstances contemplated in the second and third paragraphs of Article 75 of the Law on Constitutional Jurisdiction …”.
Consistent with the foregoing, this Chamber has stated that “the action proceeding is primarily incidental in nature; therefore, for the action to proceed, there must be a matter pending resolution through administrative channels—in the administrative procedure challenging the final act—or judicial channels. Accordingly, only in the exceptional cases established by law will that requirement not apply” (judgment nro. 2018-018560 at 9:20 hours on 7 de noviembre de 2018). It has also clarified that “the circumstances set forth in paragraph 2o. of Article 75 constitute an exception to the rule established in paragraph 1o. (incidental avenue) and must be carefully assessed” (judgment nro. 2018-008413 at 9:20 hours on 30 de mayo de 2018).
It should first be noted that the petitioner had already filed an initial action of unconstitutionality (expediente nro. 22-023715-0007-CO) challenging the same provisions on similar grounds. He also alleged the same basis for standing, namely the purported defense of diffuse interests. That initial action of unconstitutionality was, however, summarily dismissed by ruling nro. 2022-026029 at 12:55 hours on 2 de noviembre de 2022, on the ground that “the petitioner lacks the direct standing invoked in this case.” Insofar as relevant, the decision held:
“(...) The petitioner contends that he has standing to institute this proceeding without an underlying matter, alleging the defense of diffuse interests in his capacity as a cannabis consumer, which he substantiates by submitting the results of his own laboratory tests showing positive results for cannabinoid use. In that capacity, he challenges Article 127 of the General Health Law, which provides:
“Article 127 - The cultivation of the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), coca (Erythroxilon coca), and marijuana (Canabis indica and Canabis sativa) that has not been authorized in accordance with the Law on Cannabis for Medicinal and Therapeutic Use and Hemp for Food and Industrial Use, as well as any other plant with similar effects so designated by the Ministry, is prohibited and subject to destruction by the competent authority.
The importation, exportation, trafficking, and use of the aforementioned plants and their seeds are likewise prohibited when the seeds are capable of germination and have not been authorized by law and the competent authority.” He likewise challenges the constitutionality of line 27 of the list “Narcotic Drugs Included in Schedule I” of the Schedule to the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 30 de mayo de 1961, approved by Costa Rica through Ley nro. 4544 of 18 de marzo de 1970 and subsequently amended by the Protocol Amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, Ley nro. 5168 of 25 de enero de 1973, which includes cannabis, cannabis resin, and cannabis extracts and tinctures in that schedule; line 32 of the list “Substances Included in Schedule I” of the Schedule to the Vienna Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 21 de febrero de 1971, approved by Costa Rica through Ley nro. 4990 of 10 de junio de 1972, which includes Tetrahydrocannabinol, its isomers, and its stereochemical variants; and line 16 of the list “Substances Included in Schedule II” of the Schedule to the Vienna Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 21 de febrero de l97l, approved by Costa Rica through Ley nro. 4990 of 10 de junio de 1972, which includes Dronabinol delta - 9 -Tetrahydro-cannabinol and its stereochemical variants.
These provisions regulate them as unauthorized substances subject to the application of Articles l, 5, and 58 of the Law on Narcotic Drugs, Psychotropic Substances, Unauthorized-Use Drugs, Related Activities, Money Laundering, and Terrorist Financing by prohibiting and punishing activities related to cannabis for leisure and recreational use, such as planting, cultivation, harvesting, preparation, processing, possession, transportation, supply, and use of the substances included in the foregoing provisions.
Nevertheless, the applicant should be advised of this Court’s ruling in a similar case. In judgment nro. 2021-11994 at 16:30 hours on 26 de mayo de 2021, concerning the invocation of diffuse interests based solely on consumer status, this Court dismissed an action of unconstitutionality on the following grounds:
“II.- On the Applicant’s Standing (legitimación). The applicant bases her standing to bring this proceeding directly on the existence of diffuse interests (intereses difusos) in her capacity as a consumer, since she considers that her rights, and those of every person whose income does not exceed the statutory minimum, to be considered eligible for credit based on their income and to acquire decent housing have been violated. On this issue, the Chamber has stated the following:
“ON THE APPLICANT’S STANDING AND THE ADMISSIBILITY OF THE ACTION.- An action of unconstitutionality (acción de inconstitucionalidad) is a proceeding subject to certain formal requirements which, if not satisfied, prevent the Chamber from hearing the challenge brought before it. In this case, the applicant claims that his standing derives from the defense of diffuse interests and corporate interests (intereses corporativos), a situation contemplated in the second paragraph of Article 75 of the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional. Regarding standing, the Constitutional Chamber has stated that it may be defined as the causal relationship between the relief sought (subject matter of the action/proceeding) and the person seeking it (applicant/plaintiff), which the Law requires as a prerequisite for examining the merits of a matter. The circumstance set forth in the first paragraph of Article 75 of the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional concerns what may be called indirect standing (legitimación indirecta), that is, standing derived from a prior matter in which the provision or provisions subsequently challenged in the action are being applied.
For this reason, an action of unconstitutionality is said to be incidental in nature and must constitute a reasonable means of protecting the right deemed to have been violated in the principal matter. The second paragraph of Article 75 of the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional establishes another type of standing, known as direct standing (legitimación directa). This type does not require a prior matter in which the challenged provision is being applied and encompasses three specific circumstances: where, because of the nature of the matter, there is no possibility of individual and direct injury; where the defense of diffuse interests is involved; or where the interests at issue concern the community as a whole. In these circumstances, the special features of the matter—which must be examined in each specific case—make the causal relationship between the applicant and the subject matter of the claim more attenuated, thereby authorizing the applicant to bring the action directly, without the need for a pending matter awaiting resolution.
In this case, the action lacks a formal requirement, namely payment of the Bar Association stamp required for authentication of the applicant’s signature. Nevertheless, for reasons of procedural economy (economía procesal), the order to cure the deficiency provided for in Articles 78 and 80 of the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional is not issued.
…III.- ON DIFFUSE INTERESTS AND INTERESTS CONCERNING THE COMMUNITY AS A WHOLE. Second, in support of his standing, the applicant invokes the defense of diffuse interests. A reading of the pleading instituting the action makes it evident that the applicant confuses diffuse interests with collective interests (intereses colectivos), since at one point in the pleading he states that he has standing to defend the former and, later, refers to those interests as collective. A diffuse interest has been understood as a personal interest related to a right or legal situation of a special and particular nature that may be shared by other persons, with all interested persons forming a particular group or category. Thus, violation of that right may affect everyone generally and/or each person individually; consequently, any member of that group may bring the action to protect the right deemed to have been violated. Judgment No. 03705-93, issued at 15:00 on 30 de julio de 1993, illustrates what has been understood as diffuse interests, as does Judgment No. 360-99, issued at 15:51 on 20 de enero de 1999:
“It has been stated that this is a special type of interest, the manifestation of which is less concrete and identifiable on an individual basis than that of the collective interest just defined in the preceding recital (considerando), but which cannot be so broad and generic as to be confused with the interest recognized in all members of society in ensuring constitutional legality, since the latter—as has been repeatedly stated—is excluded from the current system of constitutional review. It is therefore an interest distributed among each of the governed, indirect, if one wishes, and diffuse, yet no less ascertainable for that reason, for the purpose of defending before this Chamber certain constitutional rights of singular importance to the proper and harmonious development of society. The special characteristics of these rights themselves, rather than the particular situation in relation to them of the persons who may hold such rights, are the key to distinguishing and determining the presence of so-called diffuse interests, as expressed in various decisions, including 03705-93, issued at quince horas del treinta de julio, concerning the right to the environment; 05753-93, issued at catorce horas cuarenta y cinco del nueve de noviembre de ese mismo año, concerning the defense of historical heritage; and 00980-91, issued at trece y treinta del veinticuatro de mayo de mil novecientos noventa y uno, concerning electoral matters.” In this regard, just as it has been stated that such an interest cannot be so broad and generic as to be confused with the right to ensure constitutional legality—which would entail the tacit establishment of a citizen action (acción popular) not contemplated by the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional—it also cannot be so specific as to permit an individual claim, because in that event standing would derive from that claim.
Although there is no exhaustive list, the Constitutional Chamber has identified various rights possessing such characteristics, including the right to a healthy and harmonious environment, the defense of historical heritage, electoral matters, the defense of the right to health, and oversight of public funds. It is evident that the right asserted by the applicant in this case does not fall within the circumstances mentioned…” (Judgment No. 2020-20839, issued at 9:20 on 28 de octubre de 2020). Emphasis not in the original.
Regarding consumer protection, the Chamber has also clarified when a diffuse interest does or does not exist:
“III.- INADMISSIBILITY OF THE ACTION DUE TO THE APPLICANT’S LACK OF DIRECT STANDING. For purposes of establishing her standing to bring this action of unconstitutionality, the applicant also invokes the defense of diffuse interests, particularly the protection of the rights and interests of consumers or users.
The foregoing requires the various provisions challenged in this action to be considered separately, because several regulatory provisions with widely differing content are being challenged. First, Article 44, subsection u), of the Reglamento Interno de Organización y Funciones de la ARESEP is challenged on the ground that the principle of statutory reservation (principio de reserva de ley) is violated by delegating, through a regulation, a coercive sanctioning power (potestad de imperio sancionatoria) to the Director General de Mercados de la SUTEL. Also challenged is Article 67 of the Ley General de Telecomunicaciones, subsection a), subparagraph 7), and subsection b), subparagraphs 3) and 11), which establish very serious or serious telecommunications violations, on the ground that they contravene the principles of specificity (tipicidad) and proportionality of sanctions. With respect to those specific regulatory provisions, the applicant makes no allegation or objection whatsoever concerning an alleged violation of the rights or interests of consumers or users.
It is evident that those provisions are challenged solely insofar as they may be applied in the administrative sanctioning proceeding (procedimiento administrativo sancionatorio) brought against the applicant for an alleged breach of her obligations as a telecommunications service operator; that is, the action is brought to protect a manifestly individual interest, clearly confined to the applicant’s specific or particular case, as she seeks to challenge the legal basis of the administrative proceeding brought against her and of any eventual or possible sanction. Indeed, given the content of the challenged provisions and the rights alleged to have been infringed, it is clear that those provisions could give rise to individual injuries capable of generating specific claims by a limited group of readily ascertainable and identifiable persons, namely, telecommunications service operators or providers against whom formal sanctioning proceedings are brought for alleged noncompliance with their obligations in violation of telecommunications regulations. Accordingly, the matter sub lite cannot be deemed to involve the defense of diffuse interests.
Furthermore, the applicant also challenges Article 43 of the Reglamento sobre el Régimen de Protección al Usuario Final de los Servicios de Telecomunicaciones, which establishes the obligation of operators or providers of prepaid telecommunications services to maintain a registry containing their customers’ basic information. Regarding that article, the applicant advances a series of arguments to the effect that, instead of protecting the end user of telecommunications services, such a registry of customer information for prepaid services could potentially restrict access to telecommunications services for users and consumers generally. With respect to this aspect of the action, this Chamber considers that the action likewise has not been brought in defense of diffuse interests. In the sub judice, a comprehensive reading of the pleading instituting the action clearly establishes that the action was prompted by the commencement of sanctioning proceedings against the applicant.
That is, fundamentally, far from seeking the purported defense of diffuse interests to protect the rights or interests of an unidentified group of potential consumers or users, the action has been brought to protect an individual, personal, and specific interest: the interest of the applicant herself, against whom sanctioning proceedings were commenced precisely for an alleged violation of the provisions she challenges—even potentially in opposition to or conflict with the interests or rights of consumers or users. In other words, she is not acting in defense of an interest dispersed among an indeterminate group of persons; rather, the action is brought to protect an individual interest, clearly limited to the applicant’s particular case, arising from the specific application of the challenged provision to her case. Hence her attempt to challenge the sanctioning proceeding commenced against her.” (Judgment No. 2019-19588, issued at 9:20 on 9 de octubre de 2019). Emphasis not in the original. See, to similar effect, Judgments 2019-9192, issued at 9:30 on 22 de mayo de 2019, and 2006-15489, issued at 17:10 on 25 de octubre de 2006.
In the case under examination (sub examine), as explained above (supra), the petitioner considers that she has direct standing (legitimación directa) based on diffuse interests (intereses difusos), because, in her capacity as a consumer and in a form of defense of all persons whose income does not exceed the legal minimum, the challenged regulation prevents them, by reason of their income, from being deemed creditworthy and thus able to acquire decent housing. Nevertheless, according to the precedents cited, such a circumstance is not present in the case at bar (sub iudice). Although, as the petitioner states, there could be a group of persons whose income does not exceed the legal minimum and who, as a result, could not be deemed creditworthy or potentially obtain any type of housing loan, it is no less true that it cannot be asserted that the petitioner seeks to protect that group because she necessarily shares its interests, since it has neither been demonstrated nor shown that the challenged provision causes a socially diffuse harm.
This is because not every member of the group cited by the petitioner is inevitably in a state of actual personal willingness to obtain loans of this kind and to require payroll deductions for purposes of a housing loan. Accordingly, it is considered that the petitioner is, in fact, bringing this action to protect an individual interest, clearly defined by her particular circumstances and her own need to obtain a loan and, consequently, acquire a home of her own. Thus, the challenged provision is indeed capable of individual application—that is, application to a particular situation, such as the processing of a loan—in which any petitioner could potentially claim the violation of a right through an amparo proceeding (amparo), whereupon, at the appropriate procedural stage, the Chamber would determine whether a constitutionally significant harm has in fact occurred.
In this regard, the Constitutional Chamber has repeatedly held:
“… Based on the foregoing, since the provisions challenged here could give rise to claims by persons who are readily ascertainable and identifiable within criminal proceedings, this cannot be deemed a case involving the defense of diffuse interests. Indeed, allowing the petitioner to bring a constitutional challenge (acción de inconstitucionalidad) in this matter under the conditions she seeks would entail recognizing the existence of a popular action (acción popular), which, as the Constitutional Chamber has stated in its consistent case law (see judgment no. 2016-000787 at 9:05 a.m. on January 20, 2016), is inconsistent with the framework of procedural powers vested in this Constitutional Court in its role as the ultimate interpreter and guardian of the Constitution. Consequently, having established that the petitioner has not based her standing on the existence of a pending matter in which the unconstitutionality of the provisions challenged here was invoked and that she likewise lacks standing to bring a direct action in defense of diffuse interests, this action is inadmissible.” (Judgment no. 2020-4490 at 9:20 a.m. on March 4, 2020) “…Note that, certainly, as the Procuraduría General de la República clearly states and the Ministro de Ambiente y Energía emphatically observes, the regulations being challenged are fully capable of individual application and of directly affecting the legal sphere of specific, identifiable persons who engage in a particular activity subject to the regulations established in the Ley de Conservación de la Vida Silvestre and its implementing regulations.
It is therefore clear that, contrary to the alleged defense of diffuse interests, what is at issue is some degree of disagreement with the regulatory requirements to which they must submit in connection with the activity they perform or intend to perform. As the report of the Ministro de Ambiente y Energía correctly states, the petitioners are directly involved as founders, managers, or employees of various companies connected with the exhibition of wildlife or its promotion for tourism. It is therefore untenable to allege purported conservation and environmental-education problems in order to invoke the concept of diffuse interests and thereby bring a direct constitutional challenge while circumventing the strict admissibility requirements established in the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional, as indicated in recitals (considerandos) II and III of this decision…” (Judgment no. 2021-2185 at 12:51 p.m. on February 3, 2021) Emphasis not in the original. To the same effect, see judgment no. 2021-3852 at 1:16 p.m. on February 24, 2021.
It bears repeating that a diffuse interest cannot be so broad and general that it becomes indistinguishable from the right to safeguard constitutional legality (which would entail the tacit establishment of a popular action not contemplated by the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional); nor can it be so specific as to permit an individual claim, because in such a case standing would derive from that claim. Accordingly, this Chamber considers that the petitioner lacks standing to bring these proceedings on the grounds asserted; moreover, she did not refer to the existence of a pending matter in which the alleged unconstitutionality had been invoked. Consequently, the appropriate course is to dismiss this action, without any need for further consideration.” The petitioner states that he brings these proceedings as a consumer, according to his statement, of marijuana (Canabis indica and Canabis sativa), and on behalf of the “rights of other cannabis consumers.” Nevertheless, the petitioner should bear in mind that, as stated in the precedent cited, even though a diffuse interest entails a manifestation that is less specific and individually ascertainable than a collective interest (interés colectivo), it cannot become so broad and general that it is indistinguishable from the right granted to all members of society to safeguard constitutional legality, since the latter—as has repeatedly been stated—is excluded from the current system of constitutional review.
A diffuse interest is an interest distributed among each individual governed by the law, indirect if one wishes, and diluted, but no less ascertainable on that account, for the purpose of defending before this Chamber certain constitutional rights of singular importance to the proper and harmonious development of society. And it is precisely the special characteristics of those rights in themselves, rather than the particular position toward them of the persons who may hold such rights, that provide the key to distinguishing and determining whether diffuse interests are present. Although the Chamber has on other occasions referred to the rights of consumers, as explained in the precedent cited, the mere status of consumer does not mean that, in every matter, that status entails a genuine defense of diffuse interests rather than private interests; and in that event, such a basis for standing must not be confused with the right to safeguard constitutional legality (which would entail the tacit establishment of a popular action not contemplated by the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional). Likewise, the Majority of this Court has stated that the interest invoked cannot be so specific as to permit an individual claim, because in such a case standing would derive from that claim.
The petitioner states that he acts in defense of his rights and those of a group of persons who are also cannabis consumers; however, the fact remains that this does not mean that, in that capacity, all of them are interested in harvesting cannabis, trading it, planting it, processing it, transporting it, selling it, or cultivating it, among other activities; still less does it mean that their consumption and interest are exclusively for recreational use rather than constituting one of the other uses, including those currently authorized under Ley nro. 10113. It therefore cannot be asserted that the petitioner seeks to protect that group of persons because he necessarily shares their interests, since it has neither been demonstrated nor shown that the challenged regulations cause a socially diffuse harm, given that not every member of the group cited by the petitioner is inevitably in a state of genuine interest in planting, harvesting, selling, or processing cannabis in the manner sought by the petitioner, or in using it merely for leisure or recreational purposes.
For the foregoing reasons, this Court considers that the petitioner is, in fact, bringing the action to protect an individual interest, clearly defined by his particular circumstances, which also shows that the challenged regulations are capable of individual application and of giving rise to a particular case, as was likewise noted in judgment nro. 2018-14603, at 9:20 a.m. on September 5, 2018, in a constitutional challenge brought against these regulations. Consequently, given that the petitioner lacks the standing asserted to bring these proceedings, the appropriate course is to summarily dismiss this action.” Considerations applicable to the case under review. Although, in this second action, the petitioner makes a series of additional allegations concerning the aforementioned defense of diffuse interests (in particular, citing articles 46 of the Constitución Política and 32 of the Ley de Promoción de la Competencia y Defensa Efectiva del Consumidor, as well as making a general reference to consumer rights), the fact remains that no new arguments have been presented that would justify departing from the reasoning already set forth by this Court in the judgment partially transcribed above.
In this regard, it must be reiterated that “it cannot be asserted that the petitioner seeks to protect that group of persons because he necessarily shares their interests, since it has neither been demonstrated nor shown that the challenged regulations cause a socially diffuse harm, given that not every member of the group cited by the petitioner is inevitably in a state of genuine interest in planting, harvesting, selling, or processing cannabis in the manner sought by the petitioner, or in using it merely for leisure or recreational purposes. For the foregoing reasons, this Court considers that the petitioner is, in fact, bringing the action to protect an individual interest, clearly defined by his particular circumstances, which also shows that the challenged regulations are capable of individual application and of giving rise to a particular case, as was likewise noted in judgment nro. 2018-14603, at 9:20 a.m. on September 5, 2018, in a constitutional challenge brought against these regulations.”
As a corollary to the foregoing, the action must be summarily dismissed, as hereby ordered.
In this matter, I have joined in the vote dismissing the constitutional challenge. However, I have chosen to enter a separate note intended to clarify my position regarding standing and the admissibility of these specific proceedings.
In this regard, I consider it necessary to clarify that the majority’s ruling does not mean that it may be accepted—as a general rule—that, whenever a claim for an individual and direct violation may exist, it necessarily follows that diffuse interests cannot be protected concurrently. In other words, there will be cases in which, depending on the substantive legal situation affected, both circumstances may be present.
Different is the case in which it may reasonably be inferred that, although a diffuse interest (interés difuso) is alleged, what underlies it is a clear personal and individual benefit of another nature or even another subjective right (derecho subjetivo) that does not simultaneously encompass the protection of diffuse interests.
Ultimately, it does not appear valid to use the “guise” of a diffuse interest to ensure the admissibility of an action of unconstitutionality (acción de inconstitucionalidad) when it can be established that what is sought is the protection of another type of rights or interests that could indeed be protected in an action of unconstitutionality, but through the circumstance provided for in art. 75, paragraph 1°, of the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional.
The parties are hereby advised that, if they have submitted any paper document, as well as objects or evidence contained on any additional electronic, computer, magnetic, optical, or telematic device or produced using new technologies, these must be collected from the court office within a maximum period of 30 business days counted from service of this judgment. Otherwise, any material not collected within that period shall be destroyed, pursuant to the "Reglamento sobre Expediente Electrónico ante el Poder Judicial", approved by the Corte Plena at session N° 27-11 of 22 de agosto del 2011, article XXVI and published in Boletín Judicial number 19 of 26 de enero del 2012, as well as the resolution approved by the Consejo Superior del Poder Judicial at session N° 43-12 held on 3 de mayo del 2012, article LXXXI.
Por tanto:
The action is summarily dismissed. Justice Garro Vargas files a separate note. Justice Rueda Leal states different reasons.
Fernando Castillo V.
Chief Justice Nombre9290 .
Paul Rueda L.
Luis Fdo. Salazar A.
Jorge Araya G.
Nombre139 V.
Ingrid Hess H.
Res. 2023029023 DIFFERENT REASONS OF JUSTICE RUEDA LEAL. As I have stated in other cases, I believe that one characteristic of a diffuse interest consists precisely in the fact that its impairment is general—that is, it affects an entire population or broad sectors thereof—within a context in which the injured parties need not know one another (they might even lack any connection or legal relationships among themselves), but there must be the same situation of harm or danger to a constitutionally protected interest (bien constitucional) that, equally and without any need for individualization, encompasses and brings together an entire society in the abstract. Its defense is intended to satisfy a need of society as such and therefore transcends the need of a human being considered individually or collectively. In judgment nro. 2019-17397 at 12:54 hours on 11 de setiembre de 2019, this Court reiterated the following:
“(…) Second, provision is made for the possibility of seeking relief in defense of "diffuse interests"; this concept, the content of which has gradually been delineated by the Chamber, could be summarized in the terms used in judgment number 3750-93 of this Court, issued at fifteen hours on treinta de julio de mil novecientos noventa y tres) "… Under our law, diffuse interests, although difficult to define and even more difficult to identify, cannot be—as this Chamber has already held—merely collective interests; nor may they be so diffuse that their ownership is indistinguishable from that of the national community as a whole, or so concrete that specific or readily identifiable persons or organized groups may be identified in relation to them, whose standing (legitimación) would derive not from diffuse interests but from corporate interests concerning a community as a whole. They are therefore individual interests, but at the same time interests dispersed among more or less extensive and amorphous groups of persons who share an interest and consequently sustain actual or potential harm that is more or less equal for all.
It is thus correctly said that they are equal interests of groups situated in particular circumstances and, at the same time, of each of their members. In other words, diffuse interests have a dual nature, because they are simultaneously collective—as they are common to a broad class—and individual, and may therefore be asserted in that capacity".
In summary, diffuse interests are those held by groups of persons who are not formally organized but are united by a particular social need, a physical characteristic, their ethnic origin, a particular personal or ideological orientation, consumption of a certain product, etc. In such cases, the interest is dispersed, diluted (diffuse) among an unidentified plurality of persons. In these cases, of course, a challenge brought by a member of one of these sectors under paragraph 2° of article 75 must necessarily concern provisions affecting that person in such capacity. This Chamber has listed various rights that it has characterized as "diffuse," including the environment, cultural heritage, defense of the country’s territorial integrity, and sound management of public expenditure, among others. Two clarifications must be made in this regard: first, the aforementioned protected interests extend beyond the sphere traditionally recognized for diffuse interests, because they concern, in principle, matters affecting the national community rather than particular groups within it; environmental harm does not merely affect the residents of a region or the consumers of a product, but instead damages or seriously endangers the natural heritage of the entire country and even of Humanity.
Likewise, ensuring sound management of public funds authorized in the Budget of the Republic is an interest of all inhabitants of Costa Rica, not merely of any particular group among them. Second, the list developed by the Sala Constitucional is no more than a mere description arising from its obligation—as a judicial body—to confine itself to hearing the cases submitted to it; it may in no way be understood to mean that only those rights expressly recognized as diffuse by the Chamber may be considered diffuse rights. Such an understanding would entail an undesirable reversal of the scope of the Rule of Law and its correlative "State of rights," which—as in the Costa Rican model—is based on the premise that restrictions on freedoms must be express, since those freedoms are inherent in the human condition itself and therefore require no official recognition. Finally, when paragraph 2° of article 75 of the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional refers to interests "that concern the community as a whole," it means the legally protected interests (bienes jurídicos) explained above: namely, those held by the very holders of sovereignty, each and every inhabitant of the Republic.
It does not follow, therefore, that any person may apply to the Sala Constitucional to protect any interests whatsoever (popular action (acción popular)); rather, every individual may act in defense of those interests that affect the entire national community, and here too it is impermissible to attempt any exhaustive enumeration” (see judgment No. 2007- 01145).” Consistent with the foregoing and with this Court’s case law, these are therefore individual interests, but at the same time interests dispersed among more or less extensive and amorphous groups of persons who share an interest and consequently sustain actual or potential harm that is more or less equal for all. It is thus correctly said that they are equal interests of groups situated in particular circumstances and, at the same time, of each of their members. It is precisely for this reason that, beginning with judgment n.° 2021-2185 at 12:51 hours on 3 de febrero de 2021, I have considered, unlike the Majority of this Court, that some of these interests may be embodied in a specific individual case without thereby losing their status as diffuse interests, as occurs with environmental protection, whose impact affects one person and everyone generally; and that impairment may be individualized in a particular situation, such as the construction of a factory in a particular neighboring area without the corresponding environmental studies, where its adverse effects affect the planet’s ozone layer.
Undoubtedly, the outcome of a claim or proceeding that a neighbor may bring against that factory will affect not only that neighbor’s own interests but also those of the rest of the community. It therefore constitutes a diffuse interest, even though it is also the subject of an individualized particular situation. This does not mean in any way, however, that the existence of a diffuse interest may be alleged in every situation invoked, even though such an interest may be the subject of a particular situation. We should recall that, for an interest to be considered “diffuse,” it must not only affect a community but must also be dispersed and spread throughout that community. If it does not produce such an effect, it cannot be considered a diffuse interest. In the claimant’s case, as the Majority states, the challenged regulations do not produce a socially dispersed impairment, but rather a specific one.
Thus, what may be discerned in this case is a situation that, although it may be shared by some group of persons, does not have an effect of sufficient magnitude to be considered a diffuse interest. For the foregoing reason, I agree with the Majority that this action should be dismissed, albeit on the grounds set forth above.
Paul Rueda L.
CASE FILE N° 23-026204-0007-CO Telephone numbers: 2549-1500 / 800-SALA-4TA (800-7252-482). Fax: 2295-3712 / 2549-1633. Website: www.poder-judicial.go.cr/salaconstitucional. Address: (Dirección12 , Dirección13 , 100 meters south of the Perpetuo Socorro church). Filing office for matters involving vulnerable groups: Dirección14 , San José, Dirección15 , Dirección16 , streets 19 and 21, Dirección17
1 Res. Nº 2023-029023 SALA CONSTITUCIONAL DE LA CORTE SUPREMA DE JUSTICIA. San José, a las doce horas cuarenta y cinco minutos del ocho de noviembre de dos mil veintitrés.
Acción de inconstitucionalidad promovida por Nombre29698 , costarricense, mayor, abogado, carné 34775, vecino de San José, cédula de identidad número CED24155; contra el artículo 127 de la Ley de General de Salud, que prohíbe y sujeta a destrucción el cultivo de cáñamo o marihuana (cannabis índica y cannabis sativa); la línea 27 de la lista "Estupefacientes incluidos en la Lista I" de la Lista de la Convención Única sobre Estupefacientes de las Naciones Unidas, de 30 de mayo de 1961, aprobada por Costa Rica mediante Ley nro. 4544 de 18 de marzo de 1970, enmendada a la vez, por el Protocolo de Modificación de la Convención Única sobre Estupefacientes, Ley nro. 5168 de 25 de enero de 1973, que incluye al cannabis y resina de cannabis y extractos y tinturas de cannabis en dicha lista; la línea 32 de la lista "Sustancias incluidas en la Lista I" de la Lista del Convenio de Viena sobre Sustancias Psicotrópicas, de 21 de febrero de 1971, aprobado por Costa Rica mediante la Ley nro. 4990 de 10 de junio de 1972, que incluye al tetrahidrocannabinol, sus isómeros y sus variantes estereoquímicas; la línea 16 de la lista "Sustancias incluidas en la Lista II" de la Lista del Convenio de Viena sobre Sustancias Psicotrópicas, de 21 de febrero de l97l, aprobada por Costa Rica, mediante Ley nro. 4990 de 10 de junio de 1972, que incluye al dronabinol delta- 9 -tetrahidro-cannabinol y sus variantes estereoquímicas, lo que las regula como sustancias no autorizadas sujetas a la aplicación de la Ley Sobre Estupefacientes, Sustancias Psicotrópicas, Drogas de Uso no Autorizado, Actividades Conexas, Legitimación de Capitales y Financiamiento al Terrorismo, Ley nro. 8204.
Resultando:
Redacta el magistrado Castillo Víquez; y,
Considerando:
Esta Sala ha señalado, de forma reiterada, que la acción de inconstitucionalidad es un proceso con determinadas formalidades, que necesariamente deben cumplirse para que este Tribunal pueda pronunciarse válidamente sobre el fondo del asunto. El artículo 75 de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional regula la legitimación para interponer acciones de inconstitucionalidad y prevé situaciones distintas. En el párrafo primero se exige la existencia de un asunto pendiente de resolver, sea en sede judicial –incluyendo los recursos de hábeas corpus o de amparo- o en la administrativa –en el procedimiento de agotamiento de esta vía-, en el que se invoque la inconstitucionalidad de la norma cuestionada, como medio razonable de amparar el derecho o interés que se considera lesionado en el asunto principal. En los párrafos segundo y tercero se regula la acción directa –no se requiere del asunto base-, en los siguientes supuestos: a) cuando por la naturaleza del asunto no exista lesión individual y directa; b) se trate de la defensa de intereses difusos o que atañen a la colectividad en su conjunto; y c) cuando la acción sea promovida por el Procurador General de la República, el Contralor General de la República, el Fiscal General de la República y el Defensor de los Habitantes.
En sentencia nro. 04190-95 de las 11:33 horas del 28 de julio de 1995, este Tribunal precisó que la acción de inconstitucionalidad es:
“(…) un proceso de naturaleza incidental, y no de una acción directa o popular, con lo que se quiere decir que se requiere de la existencia de un asunto pendiente de resolver -sea ante los tribunales de justicia o en el procedimiento para agotar la vía administrativa- para poder acceder a la vía constitucional, pero de tal manera que, la acción constituya un medio razonable para amparar el derecho considerado lesionado en el asunto principal, de manera que lo resuelto por el Tribunal Constitucional repercuta positiva o negativamente en dicho proceso pendiente de resolver, por cuanto se manifiesta sobre la constitucionalidad de las normas que deberán ser aplicadas en dicho asunto; y únicamente por excepción es que la legislación permite el acceso directo a esta vía -presupuestos de los párrafos segundo y tercero del artículo 75 de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional …”.
En consonancia con lo anterior, esta Sala ha indicado que “el proceso de acción es, principalmente, de naturaleza incidental, por lo que se requiere de un asunto pendiente de resolver en vía administrativa –en el procedimiento administrativo de impugnación contra el acto final- o judicial, para que prospere la acción. De esta manera, solo en casos excepcionales que la ley establece, no será necesaria la existencia de ese requisito” (sentencia nro. 2018-018560 de las 9:20 horas del 7 de noviembre de 2018). También ha aclarado que “los supuestos contenidos en el párrafo 2o. del artículo 75, constituyen una excepción a la regla establecida en el párrafo 1o. (vía incidental) que deben ser valorados cuidadosamente” (sentencia nro. 2018-008413 de las 9:20 horas del 30 de mayo de 2018).
Debe indicarse, previamente, que el accionante ya había interpuesto una primera acción de inconstitucionalidad (expediente nro. 22-023715-0007-CO) en contra de la misma normativa y con similares reproches. Asimismo, se alegó el mismo supuesto de legitimación, por presunta defensa de intereses difusos. Sin embargo, esa primera acción de inconstitucionalidad se rechazó de plano, mediante voto nro. 2022-026029 de las 12:55 horas del 2 de noviembre de 2022, al estimarse que “el accionante carece de la legitimación directa invocada en este caso”. En lo que interesa, se resolvió que:
“(...) En criterio del accionante, le asiste legitimación para interponer este proceso sin un asunto base, alegando la defensa de intereses difusos, en su condición de consumidor de cannabis, lo cual acredita aportando el resultado de unos análisis de laboratorio suyos, que resultan positivos del consumo de cabinoides. En tal condición impugna el artículo 127 de la Ley General de Salud que dice:
“Artículo 127 - Queda prohibido y sujeto a destrucción, por la autoridad competente, el cultivo de la adormidera (Papaver somniferum), de la coca (Erythroxilon coca), de la marihuana (Canabis indica y Canabis sativa) no autorizada de conformidad con la Ley del Cannabis para Uso Medicinal y Terapéutico y del Cáñamo para Uso Alimentario e Industrial, y de toda otra planta de efectos similares así declarado por el Ministerio.
Queda prohibida, asimismo, la importación, la exportación, el tráfico y uso de las plantas antes mencionadas, así como sus semillas, cuando tengan capacidad germinadora y no estén autorizados por ley y autoridad competente.” De igual manera, cuestiona la constitucionalidad de la línea 27 de la lista "Estupefacientes incluidos en la Lista I" de la Lista de la Convención Única sobre Estupefacientes de las Naciones Unidas, de 30 de mayo de 1961, aprobada por Costa Rica mediante Ley nro. 4544, de 18 de marzo de 1970, enmendada a la vez, por el Protocolo de Modificación de la Convención Única sobre Estupefacientes, Ley nro. 5168, de 25 de enero de 1973, que incluye al cannabis y resina de cannabis, extractos y tinturas de cannabis en dicha lista; la línea 32 de la lista "Sustancias incluidas en la Lista I" de la Lista del Convenio de Viena sobre Sustancias Psicotrópicas, de 21 de febrero de 1971, aprobado por Costa Rica mediante la Ley nro. 4990, de 10 de junio de 1972, que incluye al Tetrahidrocannabinol, sus isómeros y sus variantes estereoquímicas; la línea 16 de la lista "Sustancias incluidas en la Lista II” de la Lista del Convenio de Viena sobre Sustancias Psicotrópicas, de 21 de febrero de l97l, aprobada por Costa Rica, mediante Ley nro. 4990 de 10 de junio de 1972, que incluye al Dronabinol delta - 9 -Tetrahidro -cannabinol y sus variantes estereoquímicas, que las regula como sustancias no autorizadas, y están sujetas a la aplicación de los artículos l, 5, y 58 de la Ley sobre Estupefacientes, Sustancias Psicotrópicas, Drogas de Uso no Autorizado, Actividades Conexas, Legitimación de Capitales y Financiamiento al Terrorismo, al prohibir y castigar las actividades relacionadas con el cannabis para el uso lúdico y recreativo, tales como la siembra, cultivo, cosecha, preparación, acondicionamiento, posesión, transporte, suministro, y empleo con las sustancias incluidas en las normas anteriores.
No obstante, al respecto procede indicar al gestionante lo resuelto por este Tribunal en un caso similar. En sentencia nro. 2021-11994, de las 16:30 horas del 26 de mayo de 2021, en relación con la invocación de intereses difusos, por la mera condición de consumidor, este Tribunal desestimó una acción de inconstitucionalidad, bajo estas consideraciones:
“II.- Sobre la legitimación de la accionante . La parte accionante fundamenta su legitimación para acudir de forma directa a interponer este proceso en la existencia de intereses difusos en su condición de consumidora, toda vez que considera lesionados sus derechos y los de toda persona cuyos ingresos no superen el mínimo legal, de poder ser considerados como sujetos de crédito por sus ingresos, y de poder adquirir una vivienda digna. Sobre este tema, la Sala ha precisado lo siguiente:
“SOBRE LA LEGITIMACIÓN DEL ACCIONANTE Y SOBRE LA ADMISIBILIDAD DE LA ACCIÓN .- La acción de inconstitucionalidad es un procedimiento con determinadas formalidades, que si no se reúnen, imposibilitan a la Sala conocer de la impugnación que se hace. En este caso, el accionante aduce que su legitimación proviene de la defensa de intereses difusos e intereses corporativos, situación contemplada en el párrafo segundo del artículo 75 de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional. En relación con la legitimación, la Sala Constitucional ha manifestado que puede definirse como aquella relación de causa-efecto entre lo que se pretende (objeto de la acción/juicio) y quien lo pretende (accionante/demandante), que la Ley exige como requisito para poder examinar el fondo de un asunto. El supuesto contenido en el párrafo primero del artículo 75 de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional se refiere a la legitimación que podemos llamar indirecta, es decir, aquella que deriva del asunto previo donde se está aplicando la o las normas que luego se impugnan en la acción.
Por ello se dice que la acción de inconstitucionalidad tiene naturaleza incidental, y debe constituir medio razonable para amparar el derecho que se estima lesionado en el asunto principal. El párrafo segundo del artículo 75 de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional establece otro tipo de legitimación, que se ha llamado directa. Es aquella que no requiere de un asunto previo donde se esté aplicando la norma impugnada y que se traduce en tres supuestos concretos: que por la naturaleza del asunto no exista posibilidad de lesión individual y directa, que se trate de la defensa de intereses difusos o de intereses que atañen a la colectividad en su conjunto. En estos supuestos, las circunstancias especiales del asunto (que deberán examinarse en cada caso concreto) hacen que la relación causa-efecto entre el accionante y el objeto de su pretensión sea más tenue, lo que lo autoriza a interponer la acción directamente, sin necesidad del asunto pendiente de resolución.
En este caso, la acción adolece de un requisito formal, cuál es el pago del timbre del Colegio de Abogados correspondiente a la autenticación de la firma del accionante. No obstante, por razones de economía procesal, no se hace la prevención que disponen los artículos 78 y 80 de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional.
…III.- SOBRE LOS INTERESES LOS INTERESES DIFUSOS Y LOS QUE ATAÑEN A LA COLECTIVIDAD EN SU CONJUNTO. En segundo término, como sustento de la legitimación, el actor alega la defensa de intereses difusos. De la lectura del memorial de interposición de la acción, es evidente que al actor confunde lo que son intereses difusos e intereses colectivos, pues en un punto del escrito de interposición, señala que le asiste legitimación por defensa de los primeros y, más adelante, se refiere a esos intereses como colectivos. Sobre el interés difuso, se ha sido entendido como aquel interés personal relacionado con un derecho o situación jurídica de naturaleza especial y particular, que puede ser compartido por otras personas, formando todos los interesados un grupo o categoría determinada. Así, la vulneración de ese derecho puede afectar a todos en general y/o a cada uno en particular, de ahí que cualquier miembro de esa agrupación puede interponer la acción para proteger el derecho que se estima lesionado. La sentencia No. 03705-93, de las 15:00 horas del 30 de julio de 1993, ilustra lo que se ha entendido como intereses difusos, así como la sentencia No. 360-99 de las 15:51 horas del 20 de enero de 1999:
"Se ha señalado que se trata un tipo especial de interés, cuya manifestación es menos concreta e individualizable que la del colectivo recién definido en el considerando anterior, pero que no puede llegar a ser tan amplio y genérico que se confunda con el reconocido a todos los miembros de la sociedad de velar por la legalidad constitucional, ya que éste último -como se ha dicho reiteradamente- está excluido del actual sistema de revisión constitucional. Se trata pues de un interés distribuido en cada uno de los administrados, mediato si se quiere, y diluido, pero no por ello menos constatable, para la defensa, en esta Sala, de ciertos derechos constitucionales de una singular relevancia para el adecuado y armónico desarrollo de la sociedad. Son las especiales características de éstos derechos por sí mismas y no la particular situación frente a ellos de los sujetos que puedan ostentarlos, la clave para la distinción y determinación de la presencia de los llamados intereses difusos tal y como se manifestado en distintas resoluciones como la 03705-93 de las quince horas del treinta de julio para el derecho al ambiente, la número 05753-93 de las catorce horas cuarenta y cinco del nueve de noviembre de ese mismo año para la defensa del patrimonio histórico y la número 00980-91 de las trece y treinta del veinticuatro de mayo de mil novecientos noventa y uno para la materia electoral." En este sentido, así como se ha dicho que ese interés no puede ser tan amplio y genérico que se confunda con el derecho a velar por la legalidad constitucional (lo que supondría la instauración tácita de acción popular no contemplada por la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional).
Tampoco puede ser tan concreto que permita el reclamo individual, pues en tal caso, la legitimación derivaría de ese reclamo. Si bien no hay una lista taxativa, la Sala Constitucional ha identificado diversos derechos que gozan de tales características, como el derecho a un ambiente sano y armonioso, la defensa del patrimonio histórico, la materia electoral, la defensa del derecho a la salud y la fiscalización de los fondos públicos. Es evidente que el derecho que reclama el accionante en este caso, no encuadra dentro de los supuestos mencionados...” (Sentencia n.° 2020-20839 de las 9:20 horas del 28 de octubre de 2020). El énfasis no es del original.
En materia de protección al consumidor, la Sala también ha aclarado cuándo se está frente a la existencia de un interés difuso o no:
“III.- DE LA INADMISIBILIDAD DE LA ACCIÓN POR FALTA DE LEGITIMACIÓN DIRECTA DE LA ACCIONANTE. La parte accionante también alega, para efectos de fundamentar la legitimación que ostenta para promover esta acción de inconstitucionalidad, la defensa de intereses difusos, en particular, en protección de los derechos e intereses de los consumidores o usuarios.
Lo anterior exige disgregar las distintas normas impugnadas en la presente acción, en tanto que se cuestionan varias disposiciones normativas de muy diverso contendido. Se cuestiona, en primer lugar, el artículo 44, inciso u), del Reglamento Interno de Organización y Funciones de la ARESEP, por cuanto, se alega que se infringe el principio de reserva de ley al delegarse, mediante una norma de rango reglamentario, una potestad de imperio sancionatoria en el Director General de Mercados de la SUTEL. Se impugna, también, el numeral 67 de la Ley General de Telecomunicaciones, en su inciso a), subinciso 7), y en su inciso b), subincisos 3) y 11), en que se establecen las infracción muy graves o graves en materia de telecomunicaciones, por estimar que se conculcan los principios de tipicidad y de proporcionalidad de las sanciones. Respecto de tales disposiciones normativas en específico, la parte accionante no formula alegato o reparo alguno por presunta infracción a los derechos o intereses de los consumidores o usuarios.
Es evidente que tales normas se impugnan únicamente en cuanto pueden resultar de aplicación en el procedimiento administrativo sancionatorio tramitado en contra de la parte accionante por presunta infracción a sus obligaciones como operadora de servicios de telecomunicaciones, sea, se está accionando en resguardo de un interés notoriamente individual, claramente circunscrito al caso específico o singular de la parte accionante, quien pretende cuestionar el sustento normativo del procedimiento administrativo tramitado en su contra y de una eventual o posible sanción. De hecho, en razón del contenido de la normativa cuestionada y de los derechos que se acusan como infringidos, es patente que tal normativa podría dar origen a afectaciones individuales susceptibles de generar reclamos concretos, respecto de un grupo acotado de personas fácilmente determinables e identificables, esto es, respecto de aquellos operadores o prestadores de los servicios de telecomunicaciones a quienes se les tramite formal procedimiento sancionatorio por presunto incumplimiento de sus obligaciones en infracción de la normativa de telecomunicaciones. Por lo que no puede estimarse que el sub lite se esté en presencia de un supuesto de defensa de intereses difusos.
Por lo demás, la parte accionante también impugna el ordinal 43 del Reglamento sobre el Régimen de Protección al Usuario Final de los Servicios de Telecomunicaciones, que establece la obligación de los operadores o prestadores de servicios de telecomunicaciones en modalidad prepago de llevar un registro con la información básica de sus clientes. Respecto de tal numeral, la parte accionante realiza una serie de alegatos en el sentido que tal registro de información del cliente en servicios prepago en lugar de proteger al usuario final del servicio de telecomunicaciones podría, eventualmente, limitar el acceso a los servicios de telecomunicaciones por parte de la generalidad de los usuarios y consumidores. En cuanto a este extremo de la acción, considera esta Sala que tampoco se está accionando en defensa de intereses difusos. En el sub judice, de la lectura integral del escrito de interposición se constata de forma diáfana que lo que motiva la formulación de esta acción es el inicio de un procedimiento sancionatorio en contra de la parte accionante.
Sea, en el fondo, lejos de pretenderse una supuesta defensa de intereses difusos, en tutela de los derechos o intereses de un grupo no identificado de posibles consumidores o usuarios, se está accionando en resguardo de un interés individual, personal y específico, como lo es el interés de la propia parte accionante en concreto, a quien se le ha iniciado un procedimiento sancionatorio justamente por presunta infracción de las normas que cuestiona -incluso, en eventual contraposición o conflicto con los intereses o derechos de los consumidores o usuarios-. Esto es, no se actúa en defensa de un interés difuminado entre un grupo no determinable de personas, sino que se está accionando en resguardo de un interés individual, claramente delimitado al caso particular de la parte accionante, como producto de la aplicación concreta de la norma cuestionada en su caso específico. De allí que pretenda cuestionar el procedimiento sancionatorio iniciado en su contra.” (Sentencia n.° 2019-19588 de las 9:20 horas del 9 de octubre de 2019). El énfasis no es del original. Véanse en sentido similar las sentencias 2019-9192 de las 9:30 horas del 22 de mayo de 2019 y 2006-15489 de las 17:10 horas del 25 de octubre de 2006.
En el sub examine, tal como se expuso supra, la parte accionante considera que le asiste legitimación directa por intereses difusos, por cuanto, en su condición de consumidora y en una especie de defensa a toda persona cuyos ingresos no superen el mínimo legal, la regulación impugnada les impide, merced a sus ingresos, ser considerados sujetos de crédito y poder así adquirir una vivienda digna. No obstante, según los precedentes señalados, tal supuesto no se configura en el sub iudice. Si bien, como refiere la accionante, podría existir un grupo de personas cuyos ingresos no superaran el mínimo legal, merced a lo cual no pudieran ser considerados sujetos de crédito ni eventualmente acceder a algún tipo de crédito para una vivienda, no menos cierto es que no se puede afirmar que la accionante acuda en protección de ese grupo por compartir necesariamente sus intereses, ya que no se demuestra ni evidencia que la norma impugnada produzca una afectación socialmente difuminada, toda vez que no todo integrante del grupo aludido por la parte accionante inexorablemente se encuentra en un estado de efectiva voluntad propia dirigida a acceder a créditos de este tipo y requerir deducciones de planilla a los efectos de un crédito para vivienda.
De esta manera, se considera que la gestionante, en realidad, está accionando en resguardo de un interés individual, claramente delimitado en su situación particular, ante la necesidad propia de acceder a un crédito y, consecuentemente, de adquirir una vivienda propia, de manera que la norma impugnada sí es susceptible de ser objeto de aplicación individual, esto es, en una situación en particular, tal como la tramitación de un crédito, en la que cualquier gestionante eventualmente podría reclamar la lesión a algún derecho por la vía del amparo, en el que, en el momento procesal oportuno, la Sala resolvería si en efecto se da o no una afectación de relevancia constitucional.
En ese sentido, se reitera cómo la Sala Constitucional se ha pronunciado:
“… A partir de lo anterior, toda vez que las normas aquí impugnadas podrían originar el reclamo de personas fácilmente determinables e identificables dentro de un proceso penal, no puede estimarse que se esté en presencia de un supuesto de defensa de intereses difusos. De hecho, de admitirse la posibilidad de la accionante de plantear una acción de inconstitucionalidad en esta materia, en las condiciones pretendidas por ella, supondría reconocer la existencia de una acción popular, la cual, como lo ha indicado la Sala Constitucional en su reiterada jurisprudencia (véase la sentencia n°. 2016-000787 de las 9:05 horas del 20 de enero de 2016), no se adecua al marco de las competencias procesales que al efecto tiene este Tribunal Constitucional, en sus funciones de intérprete último y guardián de la Constitución. En consecuencia, al constatarse que la accionante no ha sustentado su legitimación en la existencia de un asunto pendiente de resolver en que se invocara la inconstitucionalidad de las normas aquí impugnadas ni, tampoco, tiene legitimación para ejercer la acción directa en defensa de intereses difusos, esta acción es inadmisible.” (Sentencia n.° 2020-4490 de las 9:20 horas del 4 de marzo de 2020) “…Nótese que, ciertamente, tal como lo señala claramente la Procuraduría General de la República y de manera enfática lo refiere el Ministro de Ambiente y Energía, la normativa que se cuestiona sí es totalmente susceptible de aplicación individual y de incidir directamente en la esfera jurídica de personas singulares e identificables, que ejercen una determinada actividad, sujeta a la regulación señalada en la Ley de Conservación de la Vida Silvestre y su reglamento.
De tal manera, es claro que contrario a la aducida defensa de intereses difusos, lo que se encuentra de por medio es algún grado de inconformidad con la sujeción a que deben someterse para la regulación de la actividad que ejercen o pretenden ejercer; véase que como bien refiere el informe del Ministro de Ambiente y Energía, los accionantes se encuentran directamente relacionados como fundadores, gerentes o servidores de diversas empresas relacionadas con la exhibición de fauna silvestre o su promoción turística. Así, resulta inviable aducir presuntos problemas de conservación y de educación ambiental, para utilizar la figura de los intereses difusos y promover con ello una acción de inconstitucionalidad directa obviando los estrictos requisitos de admisibilidad señalados en la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional, tal como se indicó en los considerandos II y III de esta resolución…” (Sentencia n.° 2021-2185 de las 12:51 horas del 3 de febrero de 2021) El énfasis no es del original. En igual sentido, ver la sentencia n.° 2021-3852 de las 13:16 horas del 24 de febrero de 2021.
Se reitera que el interés difuso no puede ser tan amplio y genérico que se confunda con el derecho a velar por la legalidad constitucional (lo que supondría la instauración tácita de acción popular no contemplada por la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional); pero tampoco puede ser tan concreto que permita el reclamo individual, pues, en tal caso, la legitimación derivaría de ese reclamo. Por consiguiente, esta Sala considera que la accionante carece de legitimación para plantear este proceso en los términos invocados; además, no refirió la existencia de un asunto pendiente de resolver en el que hubiera sido invocada la inconstitucionalidad pretendida. En consecuencia, lo procedente es desestimar esta acción, sin necesidad de emitir mayor consideración al respecto.” El accionante manifiesta que acude a interponer este proceso como consumidor, según indica, de marihuana (Canabis indica y Canabis sativa), y a favor de los “derechos de las demás personas consumidoras de cannabis”.
Sin embargo, tome en cuenta el accionante que, según lo indicado en el precedente de cita, aun cuando el interés difuso implica una manifestación menos concreta e individualizable que la del interés colectivo, no puede llegar a ser tan amplio y genérico que se confunda con el reconocido a todos los miembros de la sociedad de velar por la legalidad constitucional, ya que este último -como se ha dicho reiteradamente- está excluido del actual sistema de revisión constitucional. El interés difuso es aquel interés distribuido en cada uno de los administrados, mediato si se quiere, y diluido, pero no por ello menos constatable, para la defensa, en esta Sala, de ciertos derechos constitucionales de una singular relevancia para el adecuado y armónico desarrollo de la sociedad. Y, precisamente, son las especiales características de estos derechos, por sí mismas y no la particular situación frente a ellos de los sujetos que puedan ostentarlos, la clave para distinguir y determinar si estamos frente a la presencia de los intereses difusos, Aun cuando en otras oportunidades, la Sala ha hecho alusión al caso de los derechos de los consumidores, tal y como quedó expuesto en el precedente de cita, la mera condición de consumidor no denota que, en todos los asuntos, esa condición revista una verdadera defensa de intereses difusos, sino de intereses particulares; y en ese caso, tal supuesto de legitimación no debe ser confundido con el derecho a velar por la legalidad constitucional (lo que supondría la instauración tácita de acción popular no contemplada por la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional).
De igual modo, la Mayoría de este Tribunal ha señalado que el interés invocado tampoco puede ser tan concreto que permita el reclamo individual, pues, en tal caso, la legitimación derivaría de ese reclamo.
El accionante refiere que actúa en defensa de sus derechos y los de un grupo de personas que también son consumidores de cannabis; sin embargo, lo cierto es que ello no implica que, en tal condición estén todos interesados en consechar la cannabis, comerciarla, sembrarla, transformarla, transportarla, venderla o cultivarla, entre otras actividades; y menos aún, que su consumo e interés sea exclusivamente para uso recreativo y, no constituya alguno de los otros usos, incluso autorizados actualmente mediante la Ley nro. 10113. De manera que, no se podría afirmar entonces que el accionante acuda en protección de ese grupo de personas por compartir necesariamente sus intereses, ya que no se demuestra ni evidencia que la normativa impugnada produzca una afectación socialmente difuminada, toda vez que, no todo integrante del grupo aludido por la parte accionante inexorablemente se encuentra en un estado de efectivo interés en sembrar, cosechar, vender o transformar la cannabis en el sentido pretendido por el accionante; ni utilizar la misma para mero uso lúdico o recreativo.
Por lo anterior, este Tribunal considera que, en realidad, el gestionante está accionando en resguardo de un interés individual, claramente delimitado en su situación particular, lo cual denota, además, que la normativa impugnada es susceptible de ser objeto de aplicación individual, y generar un caso particular, tal como se advirtió igualmente en la sentencia nro. 2018-14603, de las 9:20 horas del 5 de setiembre de 2018, en una acción de inconstitucionalidad planteada contra esta normativa. En consecuencia, visto que el accionante carece de la legitimación invocada para plantear este proceso, lo procedente es el rechazo de plano de esta acción.” Consideraciones aplicables al caso en estudio. Aunque en esta segunda acción, el accionante hace una serie de alegaciones adicionales en cuanto a la referida defensa de intereses difusos (en particular, citar los artículos 46 de la Constitución Política y 32 de la Ley de Promoción de la Competencia y Defensa Efectiva del Consumidor, así como una mención genérica a los derechos de los consumidores), lo cierto es que no se aportan argumentos nuevos que justifiquen variar los razonamientos ya vertidos por este Tribunal en la sentencia parcialmente transcrita.
Debe reiterarse, al efecto, que "no se podría afirmar entonces que el accionante acuda en protección de ese grupo de personas por compartir necesariamente sus intereses, ya que no se demuestra ni evidencia que la normativa impugnada produzca una afectación socialmente difuminada, toda vez que, no todo integrante del grupo aludido por la parte accionante inexorablemente se encuentra en un estado de efectivo interés en sembrar, cosechar, vender o transformar la cannabis en el sentido pretendido por el accionante; ni utilizar la misma para mero uso lúdico o recreativo. Por lo anterior, este Tribunal considera que, en realidad, el gestionante está accionando en resguardo de un interés individual, claramente delimitado en su situación particular, lo cual denota, además, que la normativa impugnada es susceptible de ser objeto de aplicación individual, y generar un caso particular, tal como se advirtió igualmente en la sentencia nro. 2018-14603, de las 9:20 horas del 5 de setiembre de 2018, en una acción de inconstitucionalidad planteada contra esta normativa".
Como corolario de lo anterior, procede rechazar de plano la acción, como así se dispone.
En este asunto he concurrido con mi voto en la desestimatoria de la acción de inconstitucionalidad. Pero he optado por consignar una nota separada con la que pretendo perfilar mi criterio en relación con la legitimación y la admisibilidad de este proceso en concreto.
En ese sentido, considero necesario precisar que lo resuelto por la mayoría no significa que se pueda admitir ‒como regla general‒ que, cuando pueda existir un reclamo por una violación individual y directa, no procede per se afirmar que no corresponde tutelar paralelamente la protección de los intereses difusos. Es decir, habrá casos en que en atención a la situación jurídica sustancial afectada podría configurarse ambos supuestos.
Distinto es el caso en que razonablemente se pueda desprender que, si bien se alega un interés difuso, lo que subyace es una clara utilidad personal e individual de otra naturaleza o, incluso, otro derecho subjetivo que no engloba paralelamente la protección de los intereses difusos.
En definitiva, no parece que resulte válido utilizar “el ropaje” de un interés difuso para garantizar la admisibilidad de una acción de inconstitucionalidad, cuando se puede corroborar que lo que se procura es el resguardo de otro tipo de derechos o intereses que bien podrían ser tutelados en una acción de inconstitucionalidad, pero a través del supuesto contemplado en el art. 75, párrafo 1°, de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional.
Se previene a las partes que, de haber aportado algún documento en papel, así como objetos o pruebas contenidas en algún dispositivo adicional de carácter electrónico, informático, magnético, óptico, telemático o producido por nuevas tecnologías, estos deberán ser retirados del despacho en un plazo máximo de 30 días hábiles contados a partir de la notificación de esta sentencia. De lo contrario, será destruido todo aquel material que no sea retirado dentro de este plazo, según lo dispuesto en el "Reglamento sobre Expediente Electrónico ante el Poder Judicial", aprobado por la Corte Plena en sesión N° 27-11 del 22 de agosto del 2011, artículo XXVI y publicado en el Boletín Judicial número 19 del 26 de enero del 2012, así como en el acuerdo aprobado por el Consejo Superior del Poder Judicial, en la sesión N° 43-12 celebrada el 3 de mayo del 2012, artículo LXXXI.
Por tanto:
Se rechaza de plano la acción. La Magistrada Garro Vargas consigna nota. El Magistrado Rueda Leal consigna razones diferentes.
Fernando Castillo V.
Nombre9290 .
Paul Rueda L.
Luis Fdo. Salazar A.
Jorge Araya G.
Nombre139 V.
Ingrid Hess H.
Res. 2023029023 RAZONES DIFERENTES DEL MAGISTRADO RUEDA LEAL. Tal como lo he expresado en otros casos, estimo que una cualidad del interés difuso consiste precisamente, en que su afectación es general -esto es, incide en toda una población o en amplios sectores de ella- dentro de un contexto, donde no se precisa que los sujetos perjudicados se conozcan entre sí (incluso podrían carecer de nexo o relaciones jurídicas entre ellos), pero sí se requiere de la presencia de una misma situación de daño o peligro a un bien constitucional que, por igual y sin necesidad de individualización alguna, comprende y aglomera a toda una sociedad en abstracto. Su defensa tiene como finalidad satisfacer una necesidad de la sociedad como tal, por ello, es trascendente a la de un ser humano individual o colectivamente considerado. En sentencia nro. 2019-17397 de las 12:54 horas del 11 de setiembre de 2019, este Tribunal reiteró lo siguiente:
“(…) En segundo lugar, se prevé la posibilidad de acudir en defensa de "intereses difusos"; este concepto, cuyo contenido ha ido siendo delineado paulatinamente por parte de la Sala, podría ser resumido en los términos empleados en la sentencia de este tribunal número 3750-93, de las quince horas del treinta de julio de mil novecientos noventa y tres) "… Los intereses difusos, aunque de difícil definición y más difícil identificación, no pueden ser en nuestra ley -como ya lo ha dicho esta Sala los intereses meramente colectivos; ni tan difusos que su titularidad se confunda con la de la comunidad nacional como un todo, ni tan concretos que frente a ellos resulten identificados o fácilmente identificables personas determinadas, o grupos personalizados, cuya legitimación derivaría, no de los intereses difusos, sino de los corporativos que atañen a una comunidad en su conjunto. Se trata entonces de intereses individuales, pero a la vez, diluidos en conjuntos más o menos extensos y amorfos de personas que comparten un interés y, por ende reciben un perjuicio, actual o potencial, más o menos igual para todos, por lo que con acierto se dice que se trata de intereses iguales de los conjuntos que se encuentran en determinadas circunstancias y, a la vez, de cada una de ellas.
Es decir, los intereses difusos participan de una doble naturaleza, ya que son a la vez colectivos -por ser comunes a una generalidad- e individuales, por lo que pueden ser reclamados en tal carácter".
En síntesis, los intereses difusos son aquellos cuya titularidad pertenece a grupos de personas no organizadas formalmente, pero unidas a partir de una determinada necesidad social, una característica física, su origen étnico, una determinada orientación personal o ideológica, el consumo de un cierto producto, etc. El interés, en estos casos, se encuentra difuminado, diluido (difuso) entre una pluralidad no identificada de sujetos. En estos casos, claro, la impugnación que el miembro de uno de estos sectores podría efectuar amparado en el párrafo 2° del artículo 75, deberá estar referida necesariamente a disposiciones que lo afecten en cuanto tal. Esta Sala ha enumerado diversos derechos a los que les ha dado el calificativo de "difusos", tales como el medio ambiente, el patrimonio cultural, la defensa de la integridad territorial del país y del buen manejo del gasto público, entre otros.
Al respecto deben ser efectuadas dos precisiones: por un lado, los referidos bienes trascienden la esfera tradicionalmente reconocida a los intereses difusos, ya que se refieren en principio a aspectos que afectan a la colectividad nacional y no a grupos particulares de ésta; un daño ambiental no afecta apenas a los vecinos de una región o a los consumidores de un producto, sino que lesiona o pone en grave riesgo el patrimonio natural de todo el país e incluso de la Humanidad; del mismo modo, la defensa del buen manejo que se haga de los fondos públicos autorizados en el Presupuesto de la República es un interés de todos los habitantes de Costa Rica, no tan solo de un grupo cualquiera de ellos. Por otra parte, la enumeración que ha hecho la Sala Constitucional no pasa de una simple descripción propia de su obligación –como órgano jurisdiccional- de limitarse a conocer de los casos que le son sometidos, sin que pueda de ninguna manera llegar a entenderse que solo pueden ser considerados derechos difusos aquellos que la Sala expresamente haya reconocido como tales; lo anterior implicaría dar un vuelco indeseable en los alcances del Estado de Derecho, y de su correlativo "Estado de derechos", que –como en el caso del modelo costarricense- parte de la premisa de que lo que debe ser expreso son los límites a las libertades, ya que éstas subyacen a la misma condición humana y no requieren por ende de reconocimiento oficial.
Finalmente, cuando el párrafo 2° del artículo 75 de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional habla de intereses "que atañen a la colectividad en su conjunto", se refiere a los bienes jurídicos explicados en las líneas anteriores, es decir, aquellos cuya titularidad reposa en los mismos detentadores de la soberanía, en cada uno de los habitantes de la República.
No se trata por ende de que cualquier persona pueda acudir a la Sala Constitucional en tutela de cualesquiera intereses (acción popular), sino que todo individuo puede actuar en defensa de aquellos bienes que afectan a toda la colectividad nacional, sin que tampoco en este campo sea válido ensayar cualquier intento de enumeración taxativa” (véase la sentencia No. 2007- 01145).” En consonancia con lo expuesto y sostenido por este Tribunal en su jurisprudencia, se trata entonces de intereses individuales, pero a la vez, diluidos en conjuntos más o menos extensos y amorfos de personas que comparten un interés y, por ende, reciben un perjuicio, actual o potencial, más o menos igual para todos, por lo que con acierto se dice que se trata de intereses iguales de los conjuntos que se encuentran en determinadas circunstancias y, a la vez, de cada una de ellas. Es por ello, precisamente, que, a partir de la sentencia n.° 2021-2185 de las 12:51 horas del 3 de febrero de 2021, considero, a diferencia de la Mayoría de este Tribunal, que algunos de estos intereses pueden estar plasmados en un caso particular en concreto, sin perder por ello su condición de interés difuso, tal como ocurre con la protección al ambiente, cuyo impacto afecta a una persona y a todos en general; y puede ser individualizada tal afectación en una situación en particular, como por ejemplo, la construcción de una fábrica en un sector vecino determinado, sin los estudios ambientales respectivos, cuyos efectos negativos incidan en la capa de ozono del planeta.
Indudablemente el resultado de un reclamo o proceso que pueda plantear un vecino contra esa fábrica, no solo incidirá en sus intereses propios, sino también en el resto de la colectividad. Por ello, constituye un interés difuso; y, sin embargo, también es objeto de una situación particular individualizada. Ahora bien, ello no quiere decir, en modo alguno, que en toda situación invocada se pueda alegar la existencia de un interés difuso, aunque este pueda ser objeto de una situación particular. Recordemos que para que un interés sea considerado “difuso”, no solo debe afectar una colectividad, sino también debe difuminarse, difundirse en esa colectividad. Si no produce tal efecto, no puede ser considerado un interés difuso. En el caso del accionante, tal como refiere la Mayoría, la normativa impugnada no produce una afectación socialmente difuminada, sino determinada. De modo que, en este caso, lo que se vislumbra es una situación que, si bien puede ser compartida por algún grupo de personas, ese efecto no es de tal magnitud como para considerarlo un interés difuso. Por el motivo expuesto coincido con la Mayoría en desestimar esta acción; empero, con la fundamentación expuesta.
Paul Rueda L.
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