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Res. 12746-2019 Sala Constitucional · Sala Constitucional · 10/07/2019
OutcomeResultado
The Chamber declared Law No. 9073 unconstitutional in its entirety and gave the annulment declaratory and retroactive effect, subject to the judgment's protections for good-faith rights and consolidated legal situations.La Sala declaró inconstitucional la totalidad de la Ley N.º 9073 y otorgó a la anulación efectos declarativos y retroactivos, salvo los derechos de buena fe y las situaciones jurídicas consolidadas indicadas en el fallo.
SummaryResumen
The Constitutional Chamber struck down Law No. 9073 in its entirety. That law had imposed a twenty-four-month suspension of evictions, demolitions, and the shutdown of activities or projects in the maritime-terrestrial zone, the border zone, and the State Natural Heritage. The judgment concludes that this general moratorium weakened the protection of public-domain property closely connected to the right to a healthy and ecologically balanced environment. The law treated lawful and unlawful occupants alike, even where the latter had entered without authorization, built without permits, or caused environmental harm, thereby violating the principle of equality. The Chamber also rejected the proposition that human sustainable development could justify such an indiscriminate suspension. In annulling the whole law, the Chamber gave its judgment declaratory and retroactive effect from the date the provisions entered into force, while preserving rights acquired in good faith and legal relationships or situations consolidated through prescription, expiration of claims, or a final judgment having substantive res judicata effect.La Sala Constitucional declaró inconstitucional la totalidad de la Ley N.º 9073, que suspendía durante veinticuatro meses los desalojos, las demoliciones y la paralización de actividades o proyectos en la zona marítimo terrestre, la zona fronteriza y el Patrimonio Natural del Estado. La sentencia concluye que la moratoria general debilitaba la tutela de bienes de dominio público vinculados estrechamente con el derecho a un ambiente sano y ecológicamente equilibrado. La ley trataba de igual manera a ocupantes legales e ilegales, aunque estos últimos hubieran ingresado sin autorización, construido sin permisos o causado daños ambientales, lo cual quebrantaba el principio de igualdad. La Sala también rechazó que el desarrollo humano sostenible justificara esa suspensión indiscriminada. Al anular íntegramente la ley, otorgó a la sentencia efectos declarativos y retroactivos desde la entrada en vigor de las normas, con protección para los derechos adquiridos de buena fe y las situaciones consolidadas por prescripción, caducidad o cosa juzgada material.
Key excerptExtracto clave
XI.- COROLLARY. In light of the foregoing considerations, this constitutional challenge must be upheld, as set forth in the operative part of this judgment. The Chamber refrains from ruling on the remaining alleged grounds of unconstitutionality because doing so is unnecessary. The constitutional challenge brought against Law No. 9073, Protection of Occupants of Areas Classified as Special, of September 19, 2012, is granted. Consequently, the entirety of the Law is declared unconstitutional. Pursuant to Article 91 of the Constitutional Jurisdiction Law, this judgment has declaratory and retroactive effects as of the effective date of the annulled provisions, without prejudice to rights acquired in good faith and legal relationships or situations consolidated through prescription, expiration of claims, or a judgment having the force of substantive res judicata. It shall be published in full in the Judicial Bulletin, and a summary shall appear in the official gazette La Gaceta. Justice Cruz Castro provides additional reasons. Justice Hernández López adds a note. The President of the Legislative Assembly and all parties shall be notified.XI.- COROLARIO. En mérito de las consideraciones anteriores, se impone estimar la presente acción de inconstitucionalidad, conforme se expondrá en la parte dispositiva de esta sentencia. En relación con los demás aspectos alegados, generadores de inconstitucionalidad, la Sala omite pronunciamiento, por innecesarios. Se declara con lugar la acción de inconstitucionalidad interpuesta contra la Ley No. 9073, de Protección a los Ocupantes de Zonas clasificadas como Especiales, del 19 de septiembre de 2012. En consecuencia se declara inconstitucional la totalidad de la Ley. De conformidad con el artículo 91 de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional esta sentencia tiene efectos declarativos y retroactivos a la fecha de vigencia de las normas anuladas, sin perjuicio de los derechos adquiridos de buena fe y las relaciones o situaciones jurídicas que se hubieran consolidado por prescripción, caducidad o en virtud de sentencia pasada en autoridad de cosa juzgada material. Publíquese íntegramente en el Boletín Judicial y reséñese en el Diario Oficial La Gaceta. El Magistrado Cruz Castro da razones adicionales. La Magistrada Hernández López pone nota. Notifíquese al Presidente de la Asamblea Legislativa para lo de su cargo y a todas las partes.
Pull quotesCitas destacadas
"Es así como, con la Ley No. 9073, como lo afirma la parte accionante, se colocan en condición de igualdad, sin tenerla, a personas legales e ilegales en cuanto a su permanencia en el terreno que ocupan, al no permitirse el desalojo de los segundos ni la demolición de sus construcciones. Tal desbalance, en criterio de este Tribunal Constitucional, no es equitativo y quebranta el principio de igualdad."
"Thus, as the petitioner asserts, Law No. 9073 places lawful and unlawful persons in an equal position—although they are not equal—with respect to remaining on the land they occupy, because it prevents the eviction of the latter and the demolition of their structures. In the view of this Constitutional Court, that imbalance is inequitable and violates the principle of equality."
Considerando X
"Es así como, con la Ley No. 9073, como lo afirma la parte accionante, se colocan en condición de igualdad, sin tenerla, a personas legales e ilegales en cuanto a su permanencia en el terreno que ocupan, al no permitirse el desalojo de los segundos ni la demolición de sus construcciones. Tal desbalance, en criterio de este Tribunal Constitucional, no es equitativo y quebranta el principio de igualdad."
Considerando X
"El Estado tiene la obligación de actuar en defensa de los bienes demaniales. Una ley que suspenda el ejercicio de tal obligación sería inconstitucional, no sólo en cuanto permite dejar de atender una obligación constitucional, sino además, se suma el hecho de que esos bienes demaniales, con frecuencia, están relacionados con el derecho al ambiente, pues se trata del Patrimonio natural del Estado."
"The State has an obligation to act in defense of public-domain property. A law suspending the performance of that obligation would be unconstitutional, not only because it permits a constitutional duty to go unfulfilled, but also because such public-domain property is frequently connected to the environmental right, as it forms part of the State Natural Heritage."
Razones adicionales del magistrado Cruz Castro
"El Estado tiene la obligación de actuar en defensa de los bienes demaniales. Una ley que suspenda el ejercicio de tal obligación sería inconstitucional, no sólo en cuanto permite dejar de atender una obligación constitucional, sino además, se suma el hecho de que esos bienes demaniales, con frecuencia, están relacionados con el derecho al ambiente, pues se trata del Patrimonio natural del Estado."
Razones adicionales del magistrado Cruz Castro
"En la ley impugnada se estaba desnaturalizando e invirtiendo el sentido de los principios, pues la suspensión de la protección del demanio público se convirtió en la regla y la protección una excepción."
"The challenged law distorted and reversed the meaning of the principles, because suspension of the protection of the public domain became the rule and protection became the exception."
Razones adicionales del magistrado Cruz Castro
"En la ley impugnada se estaba desnaturalizando e invirtiendo el sentido de los principios, pues la suspensión de la protección del demanio público se convirtió en la regla y la protección una excepción."
Razones adicionales del magistrado Cruz Castro
"La laxitud en temas de ambiente puede tener efectos irremediables y a veces, catastróficos, esa es la amenaza grave que contenía la ley declarada inconstitucional."
"Leniency in environmental matters can have irreparable and sometimes catastrophic effects; that was the grave threat contained in the law declared unconstitutional."
Razones adicionales del magistrado Cruz Castro
"La laxitud en temas de ambiente puede tener efectos irremediables y a veces, catastróficos, esa es la amenaza grave que contenía la ley declarada inconstitucional."
Razones adicionales del magistrado Cruz Castro
Full documentDocumento completo
*130015980007CO* Res. Nº 2019-012746 SALA CONSTITUCIONAL DE LA CORTE SUPREMA DE JUSTICIA. San José, at twelve hours and eleven minutes on July tenth, two thousand nineteen.
ACTION OF UNCONSTITUTIONALITY (ACCIÓN DE INCONSTITUCIONALIDAD) FILED BY ROBERTO MIGUEL MOLINA UGALDE, IDENTITY CARD (CÉDULA DE IDENTIDAD) 0501950151, ON BEHALF OF THE ASOCIACIÓN SINDICAL DE TRABAJADORES DEL MINISTERIO DE AMBIENTE Y ENERGÍA E INSTITUCIONES AFINES DE CONSERVACIÓN, LEGAL ENTITY IDENTIFICATION NUMBER (CÉDULA DE PERSONA JURÍDICA) 3011212127, AGAINST ARTICLES 1, 2, 3, 5, AND 6 OF LAW NUMBER 9073, ON THE PROTECTION OF OCCUPANTS OF AREAS CLASSIFIED AS SPECIAL.
BACKGROUND:
1.- By written submission received at the Secretariat of the Chamber at 13:36 hours on February 8, 2013, ROBERTO MIGUEL MOLINA UGALDE, in his capacity as Secretary General of the Asociación Sindical de Trabajadores del Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía e Instituciones afines de Conservación, requests that Articles 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 of the Ley de Protección a los Ocupantes de Zonas clasificadas como Especiales, No. 9073, be declared unconstitutional. He alleges that those provisions are contrary to Articles 11, 33, 41, 50, 89, 121, subsection 14), 153, and 183 of the Political Constitution. The provisions are challenged because, as the petitioner (accionante) states, Article 1 of Ley No. 9073 declares a two-year moratorium during which evictions, demolition of structures, and activities and projects are suspended in special zones such as the Zona Marítimo Terrestre, the Patrimonio Natural del Estado, and the Zona Fronteriza, without specifying or defining the type of possession (posesión) that would benefit from the measure.
He considers that this protects or legalizes unlawful and precarious occupancy (ocupaciones ilegales y precarias) of public areas, thereby affecting fundamental rights such as freedom of transit in the Zona Marítimo Terrestre, the right to a healthy and ecologically balanced environment (Article 50 of the Constitution), and the protection of natural beauty (Article 89 of the Constitution). This is because forest or mangrove ecosystems have been replaced and eliminated on occupied lands within the Patrimonio Natural del Estado and wetlands, thereby causing environmental damage (daño ambiental) that is not current, as contemplated in Article 2 of the Law challenged here as unconstitutional, for purposes of applying the exception to the moratorium. He states that this extends to the municipalities, which, under Article 6 of the aforementioned Law, were authorized to apply the moratorium in areas under their jurisdiction.
He adds that the assets comprising the so-called special zones identified in Article 1 of Ley No. 9073 are public-domain assets (bienes de dominio público) intended for a service of general public utility or for public use, pursuant to Article 121, subsection 14), of the Political Constitution and Articles 261 and 252 of the Civil Code. He states that, because of their public-domain status (condición demanial), these assets have a legal nature and legal regime distinct from those of private assets, insofar as, by the legislature’s express will, they are allocated to a special purpose serving the community because of the public interest characterizing them and therefore fall outside private commerce (comercio de los hombres). He states that this Chamber so held in judgments 2010-012299 at 14:05 hours on June 21, 2010, and 2012001963 at 13:50 hours on February 15, 2012, explaining that constitutional doctrine and case law consistently regard public-domain assets (bienes demaniales) as assets having a legal nature and regime different from those of private assets—which are governed by the right of property under Article 45 of the Political Constitution—because, by the legislature’s express will, they are allocated to the special purpose of serving the community and, for that reason, cannot be privately owned and thus fall outside private commerce.
That case law has held that, because of their special legal nature, such assets are not subject to acquisitive prescription (imprescriptibles), attachment (inembargables), or alienation (inalienables). The petitioner further states that, notwithstanding the foregoing, these provisions benefit a number of natural and legal persons (personas físicas y jurídicas) without any prior knowledge of each person’s circumstances. In this regard, in connection with the consultation concerning bill number 18440, which formed the basis for Ley No. 9073, the Contraloría General de la República stated in official letter number 8285 of August 21, 2012, that the bill contained in expediente No. 18440 was not based on a formal technical study or assessment that would make it possible to identify and verify the number of families and natural and legal persons involved, their legal status, the length of their occupancy, the type of economic activity they conduct, whether they reside in the area, and the type of infrastructure constructed, among other relevant considerations.
On the contrary, the scale and nature of the problem to be resolved remained to be determined. He adds that, during the legislative process, the Departamento de Servicios Técnicos de la Asamblea Legislativa issued report number ST-175-2012-TI and, in addressing the occupants of the Zona Marítimo Terrestre, warned that it would be important to determine whether the current occupants of that zone, who cannot benefit from the suspension proposed in the future law, deserve such treatment, because their occupancy would be unlawful and it would make no sense to allow them to remain in the Zona Marítimo Terrestre if they cannot be granted any concession (concesión) or permit. He considers that application of the moratorium provided for in Articles 1 and 6 of this Law would also protect and recognize unlawful possession (posesiones ilegítimas) that, under the current regulatory framework, could benefit from a limited real right (derecho real limitado), as in the case of concessions in the Zona Marítimo Terrestre, which may not be granted, among others, to foreign nationals who have not resided in the country for at least five years, corporations with bearer shares, companies or entities domiciled abroad, entities established in the country by foreign nationals, and entities in which more than fifty percent of the shares, ownership interests, or capital belong to foreign nationals.
He argues that, specifically with respect to the Zona Marítimo Terrestre, this Constitutional Court has already declared unconstitutional the Ley Declaratoria de ciudad para las comunidades de Cahuita y Puerto Viejo del cantón de Talamanca, provincia de Limón, No. 8464, and was clear in stating that the Zona Marítimo Terrestre is a public-domain asset by constitutional and statutory mandate that cannot be privately possessed or owned, and that any subconstitutional legislation providing otherwise is manifestly unconstitutional. He states that Articles 1, 3, and 6, which are challenged as unconstitutional, would also benefit possessors of land in the PNE on which activities incompatible with or unauthorized by current legislation are conducted, because, under Article 18 of Ley Forestal, No. 7575 of April 16, 1966, only research, training, and ecotourism activities may be authorized in the Patrimonio Natural del Estado.
With respect to the Zona Fronteriza, during the legislative process for the Law challenged here, the Departamento de Servicios Técnicos de la Asamblea Legislativa warned in its report that, according to the Ministerio de Planificación, there is no certainty as to how many people live or conduct activities within the inalienable 2-kilometer area along the northern border. He adds that this zone has public-domain status and is classified as a Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre pursuant to Decretos Ejecutivos Nos. 22962-MIRENEM of February 15, 1994, as amended by Decreto No. 23248-MIRENEM of April 20 of that same year. He states that, in this regard, the Contraloría General de la República, as recorded in expediente legislativo No. 18440 (through which Ley No. 9073 was processed), considers that the moratorium established in the aforementioned Articles 1, 3, and 6, as well as the limitations contained in Article 2 of Ley No. 9073 challenged here, violate the principle that public-domain assets are not subject to prescription (principio de imprescriptibilidad de los bienes de dominio público), preventing public authorities from enforcing such recovery orders (resoluciones reivindicatorias) as may be required for their adequate protection, contrary to Article 50 of the Constitution.
In addition, Articles 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 also violate the principle of legal certainty (principio de seguridad jurídica) enshrined in Article 11 of the Political Constitution because of the uncertainty regarding the applicable legal regime, since the moratorium creates an expectation among those holding property (detentadores) in the special zones, as well as those who unlawfully enter those zones during the two-year period, even though their rights are not protected under any of the exceptions provided for by the Law. Furthermore, Article 5 of that Law does not specify which State entities and bodies are required to prevent new occupancy in the ZMT, the PNE, and the Zona Fronteriza, nor does it establish their specific powers or the means, resources, or actions available to them, thereby creating legal uncertainty. Thus, the 24-month suspension of the eviction or demolition of structures, activities, and projects in the Zona Marítimo Terrestre, the Zona Fronteriza, and the Patrimonio Natural del Estado is unconstitutional because it renders inapplicable the legislation that declares and guarantees the public-domain regime (régimen demanial) governing public assets that are strategic and essential to the exercise of collective rights, such as freedom of transit and environmental protection, without any rational, proportionate, or reasonable factual and legal basis justifying this so-called moratorium on administrative and judicial decisions issued pursuant to the legislation in force.
The petitioner also states that Article 2 of Ley No. 9073 establishes that the suspension provided for in Article 1 does not preclude the competent authorities from ordering judicial or administrative interim measures (medidas cautelares) when the occurrence of environmental damage or a danger or threat of environmental damage is established. It further provides that the only administrative authorities shall be the Tribunal Ambiental Administrativo and the Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía. The provision at issue does not specify the type of interim measures to which it refers—whether those available in each jurisdiction or specifically environmental measures—and restricts the application of such measures by administrative authorities other than those identified above and in cases where environmental damage, or a danger or threat thereof, has not occurred. This violates the precautionary principle (principio precautorio), or in dubio pro natura, in environmental matters, as prescribed by Principle 15 set forth in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development and Article 11 of the Ley de Biodiversidad.
He states that, with respect to the precautionary principle, the Sala Constitucional has emphatically ruled that all measures necessary to prevent adverse environmental effects and ensure environmental protection, conservation, and proper management of resources must be adopted (to this effect, judgment No. 2009-0601 at 15:03 hours on January 21, 2009). Nevertheless, he considers that Article 2, as drafted, confronts legal decision-makers (operador jurídico) with the difficulty of assessing potential irreparable or irreversible environmental damage that may occur not only through action but also through omission, contrary to the aforementioned principles and thereby obstructing and preventing effective environmental protection.
Likewise, it explains that Article 2 of this Law violates the principle prohibiting arbitrariness (principio de interdicción de la arbitrariedad), derived from Article 11 of the Political Constitution, because the Administration is prevented from enforcing the decisions that found legal defects in the acts issued, thereby leaving public-domain property (bienes demaniales) and environmental conservation unprotected. It also considers that the challenged Articles 1, 3, and 6 infringe the principle of equality, because they provide equal treatment for all natural and legal persons with land located in the Zona Marítimo Terrestre or the Zona Fronteriza, or belonging to the Patrimonio Natural del Estado, without distinguishing whether they are in those areas legally or illegally; whether they are nationals or foreigners, or natural or legal persons; or whether they engage in economic activities, artisanal activities, or subsistence tourism, among other considerations.
This is so even though the legislature did not conduct a reasonableness analysis to determine whether the measure enacted was appropriate for fulfilling the stated purposes. Thus, the explanatory statement for the bill that became that law merely stated that “(…) for decades, generations comprising tens of thousands of Costa Rican families have lived along our country’s coasts and on its islands. These families have built their homes and carried out productive activities such as artisanal fishing, local tourism, and agriculture, among others, in areas that form part of the Zona Marítimo Terrestre, the Zona Fronteriza, and the Patrimonio Natural del Estado. Nevertheless, despite the lengthy periods of occupation and use of those territories, in many cases such occupation has occurred without a State concession (concesión). This, together with the very nature of the land, has compelled various State agencies to initiate proceedings to evict the families and demolish the structures affected by this situation, thereby creating a serious social problem by leaving these persons without their customary homes and, in many cases, without access to the productive activity that provides their daily livelihood, without this being supported by a study substantiating the moratorium as an equal measure for all cases, regardless of the actual circumstances, and ensuring achievement of the proposed objective that all Costa Rican families in such conditions retain their customary homes and productive activities.” It considers that the challenged Article 2 is also unconstitutional because it provides for the suspension of judicial decisions ordering the eviction (desalojo) or demolition (demolición) of works, activities, and projects in the referenced areas, and prevents the issuance of judicial and administrative precautionary measures (medidas cautelares), contrary to Article 153 of the Political Constitution.
It also violates Article 41 of the Political Constitution (on this point, the Contraloría General de la República, in official letter No. 8285 del 21 de agosto de 2012). Likewise, the challenged Article 3 grants exclusively to the Ministro del Ambiente y Energía the authority to decline to apply the moratorium when areas declared to be part of the Patrimonio Natural del Estado are involved, based on technical grounds and when it is determined that there is no environmental damage or danger or threat of damage to the environment; this interferes with the powers of the Executive Branch and encroaches upon the constitutional authority of the Judicial Branch and the Contraloría General de la República, and therefore also violates Articles 41, 153, and 183 of the Political Constitution. This action is admitted because it meets the requirements set forth in Articles 73 through 79 of the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional. It requests that the constitutional challenge (acción de inconstitucionalidad) be granted and that the aforementioned articles be annulled.
2.- In support of his standing (legitimación) to bring this constitutional challenge (acción de inconstitucionalidad), the petitioner states that it arises from the provisions of Article 75, second paragraph, concerning the defense of diffuse interests (intereses difusos) or interests affecting the community as a whole.
3.- By an order (resolución) issued at thirteen hours and forty-nine minutes on diez de abril de dos mil trece, the action was admitted for consideration.
The term prevention derives from the Latin “praeventio,” which refers to the action and effect of preventing, and to those preparations and arrangements made in advance to avert a risk or carry something out. Prevention seeks to anticipate negative effects and ensure the protection, conservation, and proper management of resources. Consequently, the guiding principle of prevention is based on the need to take and adopt all precautionary measures necessary to prevent or contain possible harm to the environment or human health. Thus, whenever there is a risk of serious or irreversible harm—or doubt in that regard—a precautionary measure must be adopted, including postponement of the activity in question. This is because, in environmental matters, ex post facto enforcement is ineffective: once biologically and socially harmful consequences have already occurred, punishment may have moral significance, but it will hardly compensate for the damage caused to the environment.” (Voto No. 2219-1999 de 15 horas 18 minutos de 24 de marzo de 1999).
By providing in Article 2 of Ley No. 9073 that the moratorium “does not preclude the issuance of judicial or administrative interim measures (medidas cautelares), or the enforcement of final judicial or administrative decisions, in both cases when the occurrence of environmental damage or a danger or threat of harm to the environment is established,” we may be facing two possible infringements of the precautionary principle (principio precautorio). The first is that one of the grounds for imposing interim measures and enforcing decisions is the occurrence of environmental damage; that is, action is taken only after the negative environmental effect has already occurred, which is precisely what the precautionary principle seeks to prevent. The second is that the provision does not appear to encompass the possibility of acting when there is uncertainty as to a danger or threat to the environment; rather, it appears to indicate that such danger or threat must be certain or proven.
The Chamber has attached the utmost importance to the fact that doubt is not only sufficient but necessary for the application of the precautionary principle (Voto No. 18702-2010 de las 15 horas 27 minutos de 10 de noviembre de 2010). It must also be added that, under the second paragraph of Article 2 of Ley No. 9073 itself, the only administrative decisions that could be enforced are those issued by the Tribunal Ambiental Administrativo or the Ministro de Ambiente y Energía, thereby excluding other bodies and entities that also have jurisdiction in this area, such as the Ministerio de Salud, the various Áreas de Conservación del Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación, the municipalities, etc., thus reducing the possibilities for preventive action. A further question arises as to how the damage, or the danger or threat thereof, will be established, given the vast amount of territory that must be covered (border areas, the maritime-terrestrial zone (zona marítimo terrestre), protected wildlife areas (áreas silvestres protegidas), and forests and forest lands (bosques y terrenos forestales) belonging to the Patrimonio Natural del Estado throughout the country), as well as the scarcity of currently available resources that would have to be allocated to such an undertaking.
It is foreseeable that, in many cases, the threat of environmental damage will materialize before the administrative measure intended to prevent it is issued. Regarding the principle of non-regression (principio de no regresión), that Sala Constitucional recently stated that, as examined in Voto No. 13367-2012 de las 11 horas 33 minutos del 21 de septiembre de 2012, in the case of the challenged Ley No. 9073, the principle of non-regression in environmental matters would appear not to be satisfied, because it replaces an administrative protection regime containing sufficient mechanisms to free strategic natural areas from unlawful encroachments and occupations, as well as to remove structures that may jeopardize the public purpose pursued through such areas, with a regime that tolerates such acts without adequate safeguards against environmental harm. Moreover, the justification for the moratorium likewise does not appear reasonable and proportionate, they state.
That Advisory Body also agrees with the specific scenario mentioned by the petitioner, in which the principle of non-regression would likewise be violated: “Article 3, in particular, enacts a regression in environmental matters by providing that the moratorium may be disapplied only in the PNE and when those areas have been declared under that category. This is unconstitutional, as the Sala Constitucional held with respect to Article 7 of the Ley de Biodiversidad (it is actually the Ley de Conservación de Vida Silvestre), insofar as it required wetlands to be created and delimited by executive decree.” The cited Section 3 provides: “Article 3.- In the case of areas declared to be part of the Patrimonio Natural del Estado, only the ministro de Ambiente y Energía may disapply the moratorium, on the basis of the relevant technical justification, when the occurrence of environmental damage or a danger or threat of harm to the environment is established.” This provision not only reduces environmental protection in the terms described above, but also, without any justification, further diminishes the protection afforded to the Patrimonio Natural del Estado compared with that afforded to the maritime-terrestrial zone and border areas, because interim measures and administrative decisions regarding the latter may be issued by both the Tribunal Ambiental Administrativo and the Ministro de Ambiente y Energía (Article 2), whereas, for the former, they may be issued only by that Minister.
Furthermore, as the petitioner asserts, by limiting its application to “declared areas,” the provision would create uncertainty regarding the protection applicable to other components of the Patrimonio Natural del Estado that have not been expressly declared by decree or statute but nonetheless form part thereof, such as many wetland areas or “the forests and forest lands of national reserves, areas declared inalienable, properties registered in its name, and those belonging to municipalities, autonomous institutions, and other bodies of the Administración Pública” (Article 13 of the Ley Forestal). The petitioner also argues that “the principle of equality enshrined in Article 33 of the Carta Magna entails treating equals equally and unequals unequally. In that regard, we consider that Ley No. 9073 violates that principle in Articles 1, 3, and 6 by providing equal treatment to all natural and legal persons occupying land located in the Zona Marítimo Terrestre or the Zona Fronteriza, or belonging to the Patrimonio Natural del Estado, without distinguishing whether they are lawfully or unlawfully present in those areas; whether they are nationals or foreigners; whether they are natural or legal persons; or whether they engage in economic activities, artisanal activities, or subsistence tourism, among other considerations.” Indeed, many lawful occupants of the maritime-terrestrial zone, protected wildlife areas, or border areas have had to invest time and financial resources to obtain legal status in accordance with the legal system: first, to secure administrative authorization validly to occupy the public-domain property (demanial space) (espacio demanial)—through a concession, use permit, or lease, as applicable—and then to obtain construction permits where permitted by law, without overlooking the payment of fees or financial consideration that they must regularly make to continue enjoying their legal status, as required by the legal system.
By contrast, unlawful occupants have disregarded the laws protecting the areas concerned, entering them without authorization, in some cases carrying out acts harmful to the environment and, in others, erecting facilities without applying for any type of permit. They have done all this without incurring any expense for administrative procedures. Nevertheless, as the petitioner states, Ley No. 9073 places lawful and unlawful persons on an equal footing, although they are not similarly situated, with respect to remaining on the land they occupy, because it precludes the eviction of the latter and the demolition of their unlawful structures. Such an imbalance is inequitable and appears to violate the constitutional principle of equality. In accordance with the principles of reasonableness and proportionality, the following, according to the quotation included by the petitioner in its filing, are the reasons stated in the explanatory memorandum (exposición de motivos) as justification for Ley No. 9073: “For decades, generations of tens of thousands of Costa Rican families have lived along our country’s coasts and on its islands.
These families have built their homes and developed productive activities such as artisanal fishing, local tourism, and agriculture, among others, in areas forming part of the Zona Marítimo Terrestre, the Zona Fronteriza, and the Patrimonio Natural del Estado. Nevertheless, despite the long periods during which those territories have been occupied and used, such occupation has occurred in many cases without a State concession. This, together with the very nature of the land, has forced various authorities to pursue the eviction of the families and the demolition of the structures in that situation, triggering a serious social problem by leaving these persons without their customary homes and, in many cases, without access to the productive activity that provides their daily livelihood.” However, no supplementary study documenting the truth of those assertions was added to the legislative record.
There is no census establishing how many years persons have occupied the various State-owned areas, how many such persons there are, or whether all of them are in fact subject to an eviction or demolition order. In the absence of such an assessment, it becomes impossible to determine whether the legislative measure adopted was strictly necessary. Indeed, doubt arises as to whether the Law may have been enacted solely with the specific circumstances of a particular community in one of the so-called “special areas” in mind. Moreover, the proportionality of the measure is questionable because, being framed so broadly, it could benefit persons whose unlawful circumstances the Law does not tolerate—for example, occupation originating in concessions granted to municipal council members or mayors in the maritime-terrestrial zone (Article 46 of Ley No. 6043); natural persons holding more than one concession (Article 57, subsection e), ibid.); companies domiciled abroad (Article 47, subsection c), ibid.); and persons who have cleared forest or changed the land use (uso del suelo) within protected wildlife areas (Articles 18 and 19 of the Ley Forestal), to mention only a few.
The same could be said of the legal protection that would be granted to persons who do not fit the profile of those mentioned in the explanatory memorandum, such as individuals with high purchasing power or business consortia undertaking major construction projects.
Nor is any distinction made between the different types of “special areas” (áreas especiales), although it is quite evident that, for example, an irregular occupation (ocupación irregular) within a forest reserve (reserva forestal) is not the same as one within a national park (parque nacional), where the environmental consequences may be highly detrimental to ecosystems. Finally, there is likewise no indication that an analysis was conducted regarding the possibility of resolving the factual situation giving rise to Ley No. 9073 through existing legal instruments, without having to resort to a general moratorium (moratoria general). For example, in the case of the maritime-terrestrial zone (zona marítimo terrestre), persons already residing on the land before the enactment of Ley No. 6043 may remain there until the respective regulatory plan (plan regulador) is approved (artículo 70 de esa Ley), while also enjoying a right of first refusal (derecho de prelación) in the granting of concessions (concesiones) if the requested use conforms to the planning requirements (artículo 44 ibíd.).
Also in the coastal sector, the municipalities have sufficient planning authority to take existing settlements into account in their regulatory plans and include them therein, and subsequently grant the respective concessions. In the case of the Instituto de Desarrollo Rural, it has regulations for granting leases (arrendamientos) in the border strip (franja fronteriza) (acuerdo tomado por la Junta Directiva de esa entidad en el artículo No. 2 de la sesión extraordinaria 010-2008, celebrada el 28 de abril de 2008), with a preferential right (derecho de preferencia) for anyone who has used the land quietly, openly, peacefully, continuously, in good faith, and without detriment to the public interest (artículo 12). The foregoing circumstances cast doubt on the reasonableness and proportionality (razonabilidad y proporcionalidad) of Ley No. 9073 as a means of adequately resolving the factual situation described in its explanatory statement (exposición de motivos), as well as on whether those circumstances actually exist.
Regarding the principle of functional independence (principio de independencia funcional) of the Poder Judicial and the Contraloría General de la República, as well as the principle of prompt and effective justice (principio de justicia pronta y cumplida), that Advisory Body agrees with the ground of unconstitutionality (motivo de inconstitucionalidad) asserted by the applicant Asociación on the basis of a violation of artículos 49 y 153 de la Constitución Política, insofar as ordering the suspension of evictions of persons and demolitions of structures in the maritime-terrestrial zone, border areas, and Patrimonio Natural del Estado (artículo 1° de la Ley No. 9037) would prevent the enforcement of final judgments (sentencias firmes) issued by courts in proceedings before them, as well as the ordering of interim measures (medidas cautelares) in accordance with the merits of the record, and not only in cases where environmental damage or a danger or threat of harm to the environment is found to have occurred, as provided in artículo 2° de la misma Ley.
There could also be a violation of the principle of separation of powers (principio de división de poderes) contained in artículo 9 de la Constitución Política, because the Asamblea Legislativa would, through a legislative act, be preventing the enforcement of final judicial decisions. The principle of prompt and effective justice under artículo 41 de la Constitución Política would also be jeopardized because final judgments could not be enforced and interim measures could not be taken immediately when such judicial acts entail the conduct suspended under artículo 1° de la Ley No. 9073. The prevailing parties in judicial proceedings, including the State itself, would have to wait until the moratorium ends before they could enforce their rights, which have already been recognized in final judgments, unless another law is enacted that once again prevents enforcement. Furthermore, the constitutional powers assigned to the Contraloría General de la República in numerales 183 y 184 de la Constitución Política concerning oversight of the Public Treasury (Hacienda Pública) could also be infringed by preventing, for example, the implementation of provisions contained in audit reports (informes de fiscalización) addressed to public bodies or entities when those reports contain instructions concerning the eviction of persons or the demolition of structures in what Ley No. 9037 calls “areas classified as special.” Finally, as to the principles of legal certainty (seguridad jurídica) and the prohibition of arbitrariness (interdicción de la arbitrariedad), it argues that the grounds of unconstitutionality alleged by the petitioning party in these two sections of its pleading are unclear, since they appear instead to concern questions of legality and the practical application of the challenged Law; accordingly, a constitutional analysis of those matters is omitted, and the grounds set forth regarding the other claims are also deemed sufficient to grant the action.
Because they are outside commerce, these assets cannot be subject to possession, although a right of use (derecho al aprovechamiento) may be acquired, but not a right of ownership (...)”. Likewise, in Voto 2988-99 of the Constitutional Chamber, the Chamber maintained the position it has upheld in its case law on the subject: (...) Our legislation creates a system in which designation (afectación) becomes the primary element for including an asset in the public domain; therefore, any asset designated by law, or by an administrative act when authorized by law, shall belong to the public domain. When an asset is incorporated into the public-domain regime, it acquires a series of essential characteristics, such as inalienability (inalienabilidad), immunity from prescription (imprescriptibilidad), and immunity from attachment (inembargabilidad). As a consequence of these conditions, such assets are not subject to expropriation, since expropriation would entail their transfer and they are inalienable.
Likewise, acquisitive prescription (usucapión) is not a means of acquiring them; inalienable things, because they are outside commerce among persons, cannot be possessed by private parties and, therefore, are immune from prescription so long as they retain that status or the public-use purpose to which they are designated (...)”. From that perspective, because of their legal nature, public-domain assets cannot be owned, possessed, or appropriated by private parties, whether gratuitously or for consideration; they cannot be lost through prescription or acquired through acquisitive prescription; their designated purpose cannot legally be modified; nor may they be used for a purpose other than that established by the legal system. Their protection and administration on behalf of the public interest are the responsibility of the State. Therefore, use by third parties shall not create any right in their favor.
Consistent with the foregoing, constitutional case law has clearly established that the special protection provided by the legal system for public-domain assets applies to the Natural Heritage of the Nation (Patrimonio Natural de la Nación), whose primary purpose—besides protecting natural beauty—is to safeguard the fundamental rights of inhabitants to a better quality of life, within the context of the fundamental right to a healthy and ecologically balanced environment, as provided under domestic law and the international instruments ratified by the country. In judgment number 2003-03840, the Constitutional Chamber stated: “(...) Accordingly, it is clear that ‘the Costa Rican legal system confers special and heightened protection upon assets designated for public use or enjoyment, and affords even greater safeguards when regulating environmental public assets. This means that, if the transposition alleged by the plaintiff did occur in the Plan Regulador de la Zona Costera de Playa Platanares and the Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Preciosa-Platanares Categoría Mixta, the Plan Regulador would be contrary—at least insofar as the regulation of the portion of the Refugio is concerned—to the rule arising from Articles 121, subsection 14, and 89 of the Constitución Política, because a regulatory act would be removing a portion of a public-domain asset from that designation (desafectación).
(...)’” In this regard, see also judgment number 05266-2009, issued at 12:24 on 27 de marzo del 2009). Based on the foregoing, the Constitutional Chamber’s development of case law—whose judgments have erga omnes effect—has established that the Natural Heritage comprises two important components: first, Protected Wildlife Areas (Áreas Silvestres Protegidas), regardless of their management category, declared by law or Decreto Ejecutivo; these are understood to include forest reserves, protected zones, national parks, biological reserves, national wildlife refuges, wetlands, and natural monuments, pursuant to the regulations set forth in Articles 1, 2, and 3, subsection i), of the Ley Forestal; Article 32 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente; Articles 22, 28, and 58 of the Ley de Biodiversidad; Article 3, subsections d) and f), of the Ley del Servicio de Parques Nacionales; and Articles 3, 7, 17, and 82, subsections a) and b), of the Ley de Conservación de la Vida Silvestre.
The second component of the Natural Heritage consists of the other forests and forest lands or lands suitable for forestry (terrenos forestales o de aptitud forestal) belonging to the State and public institutions (Article 13 of the Ley Forestal), which are subject to immediate legal designation. In the case of the maritime-terrestrial zone (zona marítimo terrestre), which is closely related to the subject matter of this report, Article 73 of the Ley sobre la Zona Marítimo Terrestre (number 6043) excludes Protected Wildlife Areas from its scope and subjects them to their own legislation; this includes all other forested areas and lands suitable for forestry along the coasts. Regarding the components of the Natural Heritage, in judgment number 2003-03840, issued at 14:02 on 02 de mayo del 2003, the Constitutional Chamber stated: (...) According to the classification provided by environmental regulations, the State’s forest or natural heritage consists of forest reserves, biological reserves, protected zones, wildlife refuges, wetlands, and natural monuments (Article 32 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente, number 7554, of dieciocho de setiembre de mil novecientos noventa y cinco).
(...) Accordingly, it is clear that the Costa Rican legal system confers special and heightened protection upon assets designated for public use or enjoyment, and affords even greater safeguards when regulating environmental public assets (...)”. As can be seen, Protected Wildlife Areas are incorporated into the Natural Heritage of the Nation regardless of their management category—whether national parks, biological reserves, forest reserves, national wildlife refuges, protected zones, natural monuments, or wetlands—a legal status that is also enshrined in Articles 35 and 38 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente, in which the legislature generally regulated the objectives for the creation, administration, and oversight of Protected Wildlife Areas. Likewise, even where lands are not covered by any of the specified management categories, if they are under the administration, protection, or ownership of a public entity, they automatically become part of the State’s Natural Heritage (Patrimonio Natural del Estado), as provided in Articles 13 and 14 of the Ley Forestal.
Consequently, it reiterates that the assets comprising the State’s Natural Heritage also possess the characteristics inherent to public-domain assets: immunity from prescription, inalienability, and immunity from attachment. On this subject, in opinion number C-339-2004 of 17 de noviembre del 2004, the Procuraduría General de la República stated: “(...) Protected Wildlife Areas, regardless of their management category (national parks, biological reserves, forest reserves, national wildlife refuges, protected zones, natural monuments, and wetlands), are legally and jurisprudentially deemed incorporated into this regime as ‘areas declared inalienable.’” Because they are inalienable areas, and because of the legally protected interest they serve for the enjoyment of all inhabitants, the legal system has developed special protection for Protected Wildlife Areas forming part of the Natural Heritage, establishing limitations on human use, habitation, or production, as will be analyzed in the following section.
It further states that, consistent with the foregoing, in implementing the Constitución Política, the subconstitutional legal system establishes special protection aimed at safeguarding the Natural Heritage of the Nation. Thus, Article 18 of the Ley Forestal, number 7575 of 13 de febrero de 1996, provides that the Natural Heritage—comprising the components specified in Articles 13 and 14 of the Ley Forestal, whose development in case law has already been discussed—is reserved exclusively for research, training, and ecotourism activities, subject to prior authorization from the Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía. In addition, by legislative provision, the installation of public telecommunications networks is also an authorized activity within the State’s Natural Heritage, pursuant to Article 79 of the Ley de la Autoridad Reguladora de los Servicios Públicos, number 7593, as amended. To the foregoing statement, it adds that these limitations evidently apply to the Natural Heritage owned by the State or its institutions because, under Costa Rican law, properties or parcels registered in the names of private parties may exist within the various management categories; alternatively, State ownership may coexist with private ownership—as occurs, for example, in Mixed Wildlife Refuges (Refugios de Vida Silvestre Mixtos).
Although such privately owned properties may be subject to limitations—especially those deemed to be in the public interest and inherent in the nature of the respective management category—those limitations cannot be equated with the absolute limitations applicable to the Natural Heritage under Article 18 of the Ley Forestal. Along those lines, Article 39 of the Ley de Biodiversidad authorizes the State solely to permit activities or contracts concerning nonessential activities in protected areas, which must, of course, be consistent with the objectives for which the respective wildlife area was created. In this regard, that provision defines the nonessential activities that may be authorized within the Natural Heritage: specifically, parking facilities, sanitary facilities, management of physical facilities, food services, shops, trail construction and management, visitor management, and others defined by the Consejo Regional del Área de Conservación.
This limitation was analyzed by the Procuraduría General de la República in Opinion number 351-2006 of 31 de agosto del 2006, which stated: “(...) In our State Protected Wildlife Areas, the prohibition established in Article 39 of the Ley de Biodiversidad, No. 7788 of 30 de abril de 1998, applies against granting concessions or contracts that authorize third parties to access elements of biodiversity, or authorizing the construction of private buildings in connection with the provision of services or performance of the following listed nonessential activities: ‘parking facilities, sanitary facilities, management of physical facilities, food services, shops, trail construction and management (...)’”. Furthermore, Articles 11 and 12 of the Ley de Servicio de Parques Nacionales, number 6084 of 24 de agosto de 1977—a regulation applicable to biological reserves pursuant to Article 58 of the Ley de Biodiversidad—prohibit the creation of easements (servidumbres) benefiting privately owned parcels on lands within national parks and biological reserves, as well as the granting of concessions of any kind for the exploitation of products or permits to establish facilities other than those of the Servicio; and Article 8 thereof imposes a series of limitations or prohibitions within National Parks.
In addition to the foregoing, he states, Article 45 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente establishes broad protection for wetlands (humedales) by prohibiting any activity aimed at interrupting the natural cycles of wetland ecosystems, as well as any alteration that causes their deterioration or elimination, protection that has been reinforced in constitutional case law (in this regard, judgment 2009-014288). Following this line of reasoning, it should be noted that certain management categories (categorías de manejo), such as biological reserves (reservas biológicas), enjoy absolute protection and, consequently, private parties’ access to such property is restricted, a situation that precludes the possibility of using it for exploitation purposes, because its principal purpose lies exclusively in the protection of biodiversity and research. In that context, he argues that a reading of Article 70 of the Reglamento a la Ley de Biodiversidad, Decreto Ejecutivo número 3443 del 11 de marzo del 2008, shows that the primary objectives of Protected Wilderness Areas (Áreas Silvestres Protegidas) lie in the protection, preservation, promotion, and maintenance of natural resources and natural beauty, including habitats and species; scientific research; the enhancement and management of wild flora and fauna; and ensuring their sustainable use.
Therefore, with respect to such property, the applicable regulations exclude the possibility of its use for human exploitation or production under terms not expressly authorized by the laws governing the matter (on this subject, judgment number 4587-1997 of the Sala Constitucionalidad may be consulted). Thus, the State must ensure the protection of its State Natural Heritage (Patrimonio Natural del Estado) and the defense and preservation of the environment; accordingly, the legislature has established a series of mechanisms through the adoption of legal provisions intended to secure effective protection of that fundamental right and to exercise its self-enforcement powers (potestades de autotutela). Those mechanisms are regulated, for example, in sections 32, 34, 35, 37, 59, and 103 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente; Articles 1, 2, 45, 49, and 54 of the Ley de Biodiversidad; Articles 3, 15, 18, and 34 of the Ley de Conservación de la Vida Silvestre; Articles 1, 2, 5, 6, 13, 37, and 54 of the Ley Forestal; Articles 11, 12, 13, 17, 22, and 61 of the Ley de la Zona Marítimo Terrestre; and Article 4 of its Regulations, among other provisions.
In light of the foregoing, he states, it is evident that the legal system has not only developed special protection for the State Natural Heritage—establishing limitations on human exploitation, housing, or production—but has also developed a body of legal provisions intended to ensure the State’s ownership, possession, guardianship, and protection of such property. The Ley Sobre la Zona Marítimo Terrestre, number 6043 of 02 de marzo de 1977, establishes that the Maritime-Terrestrial Zone (Zona Marítimo Terrestre, ZMT) forms part of the national patrimony, belongs to the State, and is inalienable and not subject to acquisition by prescription. It encompasses the two-hundred-meter-wide coastal strip extending inland from the ordinary high-tide line, consisting of fifty meters of public zone and one hundred fifty meters of restricted zone. The aforementioned legislation establishes that, subject to the exceptions provided for in the legal system, municipalities administer the Maritime-Terrestrial Zone within their jurisdiction, and it permits the restricted zone to be exploited in a controlled manner through concessions for the use and enjoyment of that area, granted in strict compliance with the regulations in force.
Thus, to grant concessions in the ZMT, municipal corporations must satisfy a series of requirements, such as a declaration of tourism suitability issued by the Instituto Costarricense de Turismo; a Regulatory Plan (Plan Regulador) approved by the local government, the Instituto Nacional de Vivienda y Urbanismo, and the ICT; and certification from the Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación determining whether any land contains forest or is suited for forestry purposes, for the purposes of Articles 13, 14, and 15 of the Ley Forestal. Also required are demarcation of the public zone by the appropriate authority (Instituto Geográfico Nacional), an appraisal performed by the Dirección General de Tributación Directa to establish the concession fee for use of the land, and environmental approval (viabilidad ambiental) granted by the Secretaría Técnica Nacional Ambiental. He further argues that, in the case of land in the Maritime-Terrestrial Zone that forms part of the State Natural Heritage—forest-covered land or land suited for forestry purposes—the provisions of that statute are not applicable, pursuant to the express terms of Article 73 of the Ley sobre la Zona Marítimo Terrestre.
Consequently, these are tracts of land for which concessions may not be granted, since, when under the administration of a public entity, as in the case of municipalities, they automatically become part of the State Natural Heritage, as provided in Articles 13 and 14 of the Ley Forestal; the same applies where a property has been incorporated into a Protected Wilderness Area under the management categories provided for in section 32 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente, number 7554, of 13 de noviembre de 1995. Accordingly, pursuant to the applicable legal provisions, it is clear that forestland and land suited for forestry purposes—including such land identified within the ZMT and Protected Wilderness Areas—form part of the State Natural Heritage, and their administration rests with the Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía through the Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación, as provided in Article 22 of the Ley de Biodiversidad.
Thus, if the land encompassed by the respective Regulatory Plan—meaning the areas that could, in principle, be granted under concession by the Municipality—consists of forestland, land suited for forestry purposes, wetlands, or forms part of a Protected Wilderness Area, there can be no doubt that it forms part of the State Natural Heritage and that authority to administer it rests with SINAC. This excludes, of course, private properties recorded in the registry in the names of private parties, with respect to which the Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación may perform only oversight duties. Regarding wetlands—a concept that includes mangrove areas, as provided in the Decreto Ejecutivo que Declara humedales a las áreas de manglares adyacentes a los litorales continentales e insulares del país, number 22550 of 14 de septiembre de 1993—it should be noted that they are ecological units that carry out numerous natural processes of importance to the community and to the ecological system itself, because they constitute important feeding, shelter, and breeding grounds for a wide variety of wildlife species.
Their protection and conservation are therefore especially important. They are complex and extremely fragile ecosystems comprising a series of physical, chemical, and biological components—including soils, waters, animal and plant species, and nutrients—which, together with the fluctuating or intermittent presence of water flows, determine the biodiversity of the environment. Consequently, wetlands possess great environmental, economic, social, cultural, scientific, and recreational value, which is why their protection as a legally protected interest (bien jurídico) is essential to society, since their destruction, impairment, or loss causes serious harm not only to their immediate environment but also to the community. He further states that, on the basis of Articles 21, 50, and 89 of the Constitución Política, the State has ratified a series of international instruments aimed at protecting biodiversity and, specifically, wetland ecosystems.
Thus, our country has signed and ratified instruments that protect them directly and indirectly, such as the Convención para la Protección de la flora, de la fauna y de las bellezas escénicas naturales de los países de América (ratified by the Asamblea Legislativa through Law number 3763 of 19 de octubre de 1966), which emphasizes the creation of management categories and the duty of States to protect flora, fauna, and scenic beauty. For its part, the previously cited Convención Relativa a los Humedales de Importancia Internacional, especialmente como Hábitat de Aves Acuáticas, known as the Convenio Ramsar (ratified by our country through Law number 7224 of 09 de abril de 1991), recognizes the fundamental ecological functions of wetlands as regulators of hydrological regimes and as habitats for characteristic flora and fauna, particularly waterfowl. With regard to the subconstitutional legal framework (ordenamiento jurídico infraconstitucional), Article 45 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente establishes broad protection for wetlands by prohibiting any activity aimed at interfering with the natural cycles of wetland ecosystems, as well as any alteration that causes their deterioration or elimination, protection that has been reinforced in constitutional case law.
Indeed, in judgment number 5255-98 at 18:06 hours on 21 de julio de 1998, the Sala Constitucional stated as follows: “(...) On the basis of the foregoing, Costa Rica has signed international conventions to protect that fundamental right to a healthy environment. The Convención para la Protección de la Flora, de la Fauna, y de las bellezas escénicas naturales de los países de América, ratified by Costa Rica through Law 3763 of 19 de octubre de 1966, was signed by the Governments of the Americas, among other reasons, to protect and conserve, in their natural environments, specimens of all species and genera of their flora and fauna, in order to prevent their extinction by any means within human power. Article 4 of that convention establishes: ‘The Contracting Governments agree to maintain inviolate, insofar as feasible, reserves of virgin regions, except for duly authorized scientific research and government inspection, or for other purposes consistent with the purposes for which the reserve was created.’ Costa Rica also signed the so-called ‘Convención Relativa a los Humedales de Importancia Internacional, Especialmente como Habitad de Aves Acuáticas,’ also called the ‘Convención de Ramsar’ (signed in Ramsar on 2 de febrero de 1971).
Article 4 thereof establishes: ‘Each Contracting Party shall promote the conservation of wetlands and waterfowl by establishing nature reserves on wetlands, whether or not they are included in the 11 List tI, and shall make adequate provision for their management and care....’” He states that our country has undertaken an international commitment to keep reserves of virgin regions and wetlands inviolate. Along the same line of reasoning, for the protection of these ecosystems, the Constitutional Court has established that all land subject to flooding constitutes wetlands protected by our legal system, even if it does not form part of a Protected Wilderness Area.
Indeed, after an extensive discussion of the importance of wetland ecosystems (ecosistemas de humedad), and given the erga omnes effect of its judgments, Voto número 12817-2001 stated that “(...) Now then, although in this specific case MINAE certifies that the petitioner’s property is not located within a Protected Wildlife Area (Área Silvestre Protegida), according to the areas administered by it, this in no way means that the wetland found there should not be protected. We must recall that the International Convention signed by our country, which establishes the obligation of the State Party to promote the conservation of wetlands and waterfowl by creating nature reserves in wetlands, whether or not they are included in the ‘List,’ and to make adequate provision for their management and care, is fully applicable to the present case (...). On the contrary, it was deemed proven that the area in question is indeed a wetland and that it was altered without any authorization from the corresponding authorities, which can in no way be justified by the right to property, since the latter is also subject to the exercise of other constitutional rights (...)”.
For its part, in judgment 2009-014288 of 09 de septiembre del 2009, it asserts that this Sala declared the words “creation and” in the final paragraph of Article 7 of the Ley de Protección de Vida Silvestre unconstitutional; that paragraph provided that wetlands had to be created by means of an Executive Decree (Decreto Ejecutivo). Regarding that issue, it must be emphasized that wetlands—like forests—do not require an executive decree for their creation; it is sufficient that an area or ecosystem exist that meets the characteristics established in the definitions of wetlands, in accordance with the Convenio de Ramsar; Article 58 of the Ley de Biodiversidad; provisions 2, 7(h), and 97 of the Ley de Conservación de Vida Silvestre; and Articles 32, 37, 39, 40, 41, 43, 45, 51, and 52 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente, among others. With respect to the border strip (franja fronteriza), its location and cover make it an area of fundamental importance for protecting the environment as a territory and for serving as an essential buffer zone (zona de amortiguamiento) for the migration of flora and fauna, water resources, and the prevailing ecosystem in certain regions of the country.
Based on the foregoing, it concludes that the aforementioned tracts of land form part of the State Natural Heritage (Patrimonio Natural del Estado) and, consequently, possess the special characteristics inherent to public-domain property (bienes de dominio público). In another vein, as may be seen from Article 32 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente (número 7554 del 04 de octubre de 1995), each protected wildlife area has its own biological, edaphic (soil and plants), and hydrological characteristics, among others, that make it deserving of a particular treatment regime defined by its assigned management category (categoría de manejo). This is because different forms of protection are required, not only due to the characteristics of each of the Protected Wildlife Areas (Áreas Silvestres Protegidas), but also because of the different purposes they pursue; for this reason, management categories are conceived as a classification that makes it possible to delimit the activities carried out there according to the principal objective for which each area was created.
With respect to the border strip adjoining Panamá, in voto número 1963-2012, Sala Constitucional (Considerando X) conducted an extensive analysis of provisions 16 and 34 of the Proyecto de Ley de Creación del Instituto de Desarrollo Rural (now Ley No. 9036). Regarding the matters analyzed in connection with the border strip, it was determined that those tracts of land adjoining Panamá form part of the Patrimonio Natural del Estado. In this regard, pursuant to Articles 82 of the Ley de Conservación de Vida Silvestre and 70(e) of the Reglamento a la Ley de Biodiversidad, Wildlife Refuges (Refugios de Vida Silvestre)—the category held by the northern border corridor—are conceived as geographic areas containing terrestrial, marine, marine-coastal, or freshwater ecosystems, or a combination thereof. Their principal purposes are the conservation, research, propagation, and management of wild flora and fauna, particularly those threatened with extinction, as well as migratory and endemic species, and they are subject to oversight by the Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación, by express provision of Articles 22 of the Ley de Biodiversidad and 7 of its Reglamento.
Consequently, like all other management categories of Protected Wildlife Areas, they are zones created to protect a higher legal interest (interés jurídico superior), and therefore assigning them a purpose different from that for which they were created would be manifestly unconstitutional. It argues that when the Law challenged here was being considered by the Asamblea Legislativa—processed as bill número 18.440 before the Comisión Permanente Especial de Turismo—the legislative initiative was justified primarily by the need to provide a temporary solution while optimal land-use planning (ordenamiento territorial) measures were adopted for the Zona Marítimo Terrestre, Zona Fronteriza, and Patrimonio Natural del Estado. It was further stated that, in addressing the regularization of land tenure (regularización territorial) in the regions subject to the moratorium, it was necessary to consider the particular circumstances prevailing in each specific area, and that several bills were being considered in the legislative process, making it necessary to give Parliament sufficient time to properly discuss each of those initiatives.
To place the reasons that prompted this Law in context, it states, it is important to understand its basis: “For decades, generations comprising tens of thousands of Costa Rican families have lived along our country’s coasts and on its islands. These families have built their homes and carried out productive activities such as artisanal fishing, local tourism, and agriculture, among others, in areas forming part of the Zona Marítimo Terrestre, the Zona Fronteriza, and the Patrimonio Natural del Nevertheless, despite the long periods of occupation and use of those territories, in many cases such occupation has occurred without a concession (concesión) from the State authorizing it (...)”. Furthermore, regarding the content of Ley 9073, as noted above, it establishes a period of two years from its entry into force during which eviction and demolition of structures may not be carried out on certain lands forming part of the public domain (dominio público)—the zona marítimo terrestre, zona fronteriza, and patrimonio natural del Estado.
The first point that must be made clear is that the so-called “Ley de Moratoria” does not conflict constitutionally with Article 50 of the Fundamental Charter (Carta Fundamental). This is because the restrictions on carrying out evictions in those sectors do not curtail the exercise of administrative self-enforcement powers (potestades de autotutela) through the enforcement of administrative acts whose primary purpose is to safeguard the integrity of the areas subject to the moratorium—more specifically, the protection of the biodiversity and natural resources existing therein—because administrative self-enforcement may be exercised by the Minister, as provided in Article 3 of Ley 9073, which states: “3.- In the case of areas declared patrimonio natural del Estado, only the Ministro de Ambiente y Energía may disapply the moratorium, on the basis of the relevant technical justification, when environmental damage (daño ambiental), or a danger or threat of damage to the environment, is found to have occurred.” The exercise of protective powers (potestades de tutela) over the public domain has been analyzed by the Procuraduría General de la República, for example, in Dictamen número C-264-2004: “(...) The principle of administrative self-enforcement concerning public-domain property (bienes demaniales) empowers the Administration to protect such property directly and on its own initiative, by virtue of the purpose it is intended to serve.
Defensive action to ensure its proper conservation, use, and physical integrity must not be delayed (...) Hence, the privilege of administrative self-enforcement is an essential mechanism for effective administrative action, insofar as it advances the public interest expeditiously, without the delays inherent in judicial proceedings (...)”. The judgments of Sala Constitucional, números 447-91 and 770-91, may be consulted to the same effect. Clearly, the exercise of administrative self-enforcement powers serves a higher legal interest because, through the exercise of that authority, the aim is to protect the State public domain (demanio estatal)—meaning the sectors subject to the moratorium—from unlawful intrusions or appropriation by private individuals. Following that line of reasoning, the challenged provisions took into account the social, economic, and environmental impact that evicting people could cause.
The continued presence of people and human activities on tracts of land forming part of the Patrimonio Natural del Estado, especially in ecosystems as fragile as wetlands—an issue that runs counter to the precautionary principle (principio precautorio), which has constitutional status—may be addressed under the authority conferred by law upon the Ministro of MINAE, who may disapply the moratorium on the basis of the relevant technical justification when environmental damage, or a danger or threat of damage to the environment, is found to have occurred. It also states that the challenged Article 2 likewise presents no constitutional conflict because it permits the implementation of precautionary measures (actos cautelares) and the enforcement of final judicial and administrative decisions, which does not prevent the exercise of the right. Evidence of the foregoing is that the Ministro de Ambiente himself, acting through institutional bodies, may order precautionary measures and enforce his own administrative decisions, all for the benefit of the environment.
Likewise, provisions 4, 5, and 6 seek to prevent this moratorium from creating precarious rights (derechos a título precario), encouraging new occupations, or allowing alterations to structures, activities, or projects, except pursuant to health orders (ordenes sanitarias). This is nothing more than the straightforward application of the law and entails no conflict with constitutional Article 50, since the aim is to prevent abuse of rights and the opening of legal loopholes that could generate illegitimate rights. Article 6, for its part, allows municipalities, in their capacity as local governments, to apply these provisions if appropriate. For the foregoing reasons, the challenged provisions do not violate constitutional provision 33. In the words of the body charged with constitutional review, the Principle of Reasonableness (Principio de Razonabilidad) arises from so-called “substantive due process” (debido proceso sustantivo), in the sense that the acts of public-law entities must possess an inherent foundation of justice.
Thus, when certain rights are restricted, proportionality requires that the limitation be duly justified by a sufficiently weighty reason to legitimize the contradiction or tip the balance against the general principle of equality. Accordingly, the restriction must be supported by the existence of a compelling social need.
Within this context, the Principle of Reasonableness (Principio de Razonabilidad), as a general limit on the actions of public bodies, specifically consists of extending throughout the entire system the imposition of limits on the exercise of administrative discretion (discrecionalidad administrativa). Thus, it contends that, beginning with judgment number 03933-98 at 9:59 a.m. on June 12, 1998, the Sala Constitucional incorporated and developed in its case law the elements of German doctrine concerning constitutional reasonableness, concluding that an act restricting rights is reasonable when it satisfies three conditions: it must be necessary, suitable, and proportionate. The necessity of a measure refers directly to the existence of a factual basis that makes it essential to protect some collective interest or set of collective interests—or those of a particular group—by adopting a differentiating measure.
In other words, if such action is not taken, important public interests will be harmed. If the restriction is not necessary, it cannot be regarded as reasonable and, therefore, constitutionally valid. Suitability, in turn, entails an assessment of whether the type of restriction to be adopted does or does not fulfill the purpose of addressing the identified need. The suitability of the measure would indicate that other mechanisms may exist that better address the existing need, some of which may achieve the proposed purpose without restricting the enjoyment of the right in question. Finally, it explains that proportionality requires a necessary comparison between the purpose pursued by the act and the type of restriction imposed or intended to be imposed, so that the restriction is not markedly greater than the benefit that it is intended to secure for the community. Of the latter elements, it could be said that the first is based on a qualitative assessment, whereas the second proceeds from a quantitative comparison of the two objects analyzed.
From that perspective, it is possible to conclude that imposing limitations on the enjoyment of a constitutional right in the manner in which it was done, with respect to land afforded special protection by the legal system, does not violate Article 33 of the Constitution. On this subject, in judgment number 2988-99, the Sala states: “(...) This Sala has repeatedly held that the purposes of a provision must be proportionate and reasonable in light of the objective it seeks to achieve, as well as the consequences that may arise from it (...) it cannot be permitted that, in solving a social problem such as housing for a few individuals in this case, the country’s protected areas are endangered and a significant and imminent risk is created that may harm our environmental conservation areas, thereby violating the precautionary principle (principio precautorio) set forth in the DECLARACION DE RÍO and the in dubio pro natura principle, such that the protection of our natural resources must involve a preventive approach; that is, if degradation and deterioration are to be minimized, precaution and prevention must be the governing principles (...)”.
Following this reasoning, it is also important to note that some of the proposed solutions for land-use planning (ordenamiento territorial) in these protected wildlife areas (áreas silvestres protegidas) and their zones of influence may require the exclusion of certain urban areas or settlements; this would require technical studies and specific laws approved by the Asamblea Legislativa, which cannot be accomplished in the short term. Regarding this particular matter—the inclusion and exclusion of communities within the refuge—the Procuraduría General de la República stated in Opinión Jurídica 40-2012 of July 19, 2012, that it had concluded that the territorial expansion of the Refugio (or of any other protected wildlife area) may be accomplished through regulations, but that its reduction may not, as any such reduction must necessarily be enacted by law and based on technical criteria. Consistent with the foregoing reasoning, it reiterates that the areas subject to the moratorium are part of the public domain (dominio público) because of their environmental significance, as in the case of the Patrimonio Natural (understood as the protected wildlife areas, the northern border zone, as well as forest-covered areas and lands suitable for forestry belonging to the State or other public-law entities).
Environmental regulations have declared these areas protected because of the importance of conserving them against human activity that alters ecosystems and the habitats of the species living within them, as well as because of the need to preserve forests, which are important for generating essential and invaluable resources for human activities themselves, such as water. Nevertheless, the Poder Ejecutivo has established a mandatory deadline for seeking a solution to the social problem existing within these protected areas, in order to guarantee the purported rights claimed by their occupants. Based on the foregoing, it requests that the action be dismissed.
In the case of the area’s small hotels, they explain, many of which, including Hotel Villas del Caribe, hold all permits issued by ICT and Municipalidad de Talamanca; they also pay taxes and contribute to the CCSS, since they provide direct and indirect employment in the area. Decree No. 23069-MIRENEM, published in La Gaceta 65 of 05 de abril de 1994, which was created to regulate the massive influx of visitors to Gandoca Beach during the nesting season of leatherback, green, hawksbill, and loggerhead sea turtles, between the months of March and October, repealed Article Six, expanding the boundaries of the Refuge because it included the original urban areas within the Refuge established by original Decree 16614-MAG. On 31 de octubre del año 2000, Decree 29019 was published in La Gaceta No. 218; it concerns the regulations for Participatory Management of Natural Resources in the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Gandoca Manzanillo, Gandoca Sector, and Article 8 states verbatim: “Decree No. 23069-MIRENEM is hereby repealed: —whereupon Article 6 of Decree 16614-MAG reenters into force, and the urban areas of Gandoca, Manzanillo and Puerto Viejo are once again excluded from the Refuge.” In La Gaceta No. 114 of lunes 16 de junio del año 2003, the Área de Conservación la Amistad Caribe published, in the Regulations section, the Implementation Management Plan (Plan de Manejo de la Aplicación) for the Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Gandoca-Manzanillo.
The text states, among other arguments, the following: “(…) Residents and the general public are hereby advised that, SINCE THE PUBLICATION OF DECREE No. 25595-MINAE of once de octubre de mil novecientos noventa y seis, published in La Gaceta No. 214 of siete de noviembre de mil novecientos noventa y seis, THE MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR THE REFUGIO NACIONAL DE VIDA SILVESTRE GANDOCA-MANZANILLO HAS BEEN IN EFFECT. Hereinafter referred to by the initials RNVS-GM. The zoning maps (planos de zonificación) may be consulted at the Unión headquarters of Área de Conservación La Amistad caribe and at the Manzanillo and Gandoca Operational Centers.” Decree No. 25595-MINAE concerning the Management Plan (Plan de Manejo) for the Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Gandoca-Manzanillo established the creation of the Advisory Committee and the Zonal Committees, which, in accordance with current legislation, are responsible for co-administering (co-administrar) the Refuge.
On 11 de noviembre del año 2005, Ley No. 8464 was published by the Asamblea Legislativa in La Gaceta 218, declaring the communities of Cahuita and Puerto Viejo, Cantón de Talamanca, provincia de Limón, to be cities. Article 2 charges the Municipalidad with issuing and enforcing the provisions necessary to guarantee the free movement of persons, as well as public use of that area. They add that Decree No. 32753-MINAE was published on page 13 of La Gaceta No. 228 of viernes 25 de noviembre del año 2005. That decree was issued to reverse the illegality, according to the words of former Minister Carlos Manuel Rodríguez Echandi in official letter DM-421-2006-03-24, which had resulted from the entry into force of Decree No. 29019-MINAE of 19 de septiembre del año 2000, and therefore once again decreed: a) —Article 2: —Articles 5 and 6 of Executive Decree No. 16614-MAG, of 1° de junio de 1985, which created the Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Gandoca Manzanillo, are hereby repealed as drafted.
As a result, they believe, the areas of Gandoca, Manzanillo and Puerto Viejo were once again included within the Refuge. This gave rise to an entire movement and widespread discontent among the people because of the legal uncertainty and abuse of power. Decree 34043 MINAE was published in La Gaceta 202 of 22 de octubre del año 2007 and states, among other things, in Article 7: Decree No. 32753 of 25 de noviembre de 2005 is hereby repealed. As a result, Article 6 of original Decree 16614 creating the Refuge reentered into force. Consequently, the urban areas were once again excluded from it, with the express consent of the SINAC Legal Counsel’s Office and the Protected Wildlife Areas Management Office (Gerencia de Áreas Silvestres Protegidas). The draft of Decree 34043-MINAE, which originated within SINAC, was supported by the Minister at that time for two compelling reasons: a) the promulgation of Decree No. 32753-MINAE by then-Minister Carlos Manuel Rodríguez lacked any legal basis; b) it never had a technical-scientific basis supporting the inclusion of those areas, a requirement that, as they have explained, is necessary and indispensable for placing any area intended to be reclassified as a protected wildlife area (área silvestre protegida, ASP) under such status, pursuant to current law.
They state that, since the creation of RNVS Gandoca Manzanillo by Decree No. 16614-MAG, the urban areas of Gandoca, Manzanillo and Puerto Viejo were expressly excluded under Article 6. The Contraloría General de la República issued Report No. OFOEPGAA-59-2008 concerning a study “on MINAET’s management of the country’s coastal protected wildlife areas”; that report concluded, among other things, as follows: a. SINAC has neither updated nor formalized the existing policies for the management, oversight, and protection of the country’s protected wildlife areas (ASP). b. This shows that SINAC lacks a procedure through which the Institution’s policies are developed, communicated, and implemented, as necessary to formalize a precise and comprehensive guiding framework for the administration, oversight, and protection of ASP. c. Gaps can also be seen in other relevant policies, such as those concerning the particular management conditions of the seven existing management categories (categorías de manejo). d. The same is true of the specific conditions applicable to those ASP located along the country’s coastlines, which are affected by the dynamic growth of the tourism, real-estate, commercial, and population sectors—a situation faced by 6 of the 11 Conservation Areas comprising SINAC (Tempisque, Guanacaste, Pacífico Central, Amistad Caribe, Tortuguero and Osa).
These deficiencies exist despite the fact that Article 22 of the Ley de Biodiversidad establishes SINAC’s legal responsibility to issue policies and to plan and carry out processes that ensure sustainability in the management of the country’s natural resources. It emphasizes that MINAE and SINAC are required to eliminate the environmental policies necessary for the administration, protection, and oversight of ASP consisting of land, wetlands, and portions of the sea that have been declared as such because they represent ecosystems containing threatened species and have been classified under different management categories according to their nature, in order to devote them to the conservation and protection of biodiversity, soil, water resources, cultural resources, and ecosystem services in general, as established by Article 32 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente (Forest Reserves, Protective Zones, National Parks, Biological Reserves, National Wildlife Refuges, Wetlands, and National Monuments).
In response to the concerns raised by the Contraloría General de la República regarding general policies on protected wildlife areas, the Ministerio de Ambiente Energía y Telecomunicaciones, through official letter DM- 445-09, dated 30 de marzo del año 2009, filed a motion for review (recurso de revisión) with the Contraloría General de la República, whose arguments may be summarized as follows: a) Although the report issued by the Contraloría General de la República identifies noncompliance with the Ley de Biodiversidad as the cause of all the deficiencies found, it simultaneously disregards and entirely omits the fact that the Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación (SINAC) is a System created by the Ley de Biodiversidad of 1998, which was completely paralyzed for nearly seven years by a constitutional challenge (Recurso de inconstitucionalidad) filed against it by the Minister of the Environment at that time, Licda. Elizabeth Odio Benito, which plainly prevented its implementation and prompted, and even fostered, that paralysis because of the time taken by the Sala Constitucional to decide the matter and ultimately dismiss the challenge. b) The Ministry’s official letter states that our country lapses into stagnation and legal uncertainty whenever any citizen, interest group, or other party files a constitutional challenge.
The fact that this was public knowledge and caused the system to be paralyzed was inexplicably omitted by the Contraloría General de la República. c) It also states that it is important to note that the two previous administrations (1998-2022 and 2002-2006) evaded implementation of the provisions of the Ley de Biodiversidad concerning the establishment and operation of the Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación (SINAC) provided for therein; in its view, this was fostered by a policy of concealed centralization that, in one way or another, prevented the system from being given the operational tools needed to begin functioning in accordance with the law. d) The same official states that a hegemonic, bureaucratic, and inefficient SINAC was maintained at the central headquarters of the then MINAET, along with an isolated group of Conservation Area offices with scant resources and operational capacity.
This was precisely the opposite of the model that the Ley de Biodiversidad sought to overcome by defining the objectives and powers of the Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación and by decentralizing through the Conservation Areas to achieve better environmental management (Section 11, Articles 22 through 43). The official letter continues: The current Administration (2006-2010), with respect to the environmental sector, unfortunately inherited the consequences of the 105 defects noted. This administration, they state, began implementing the SINAC reform established by the Ley de Biodiversidad at the end of 2005, despite strong resistance from “SINAC” at its central headquarters; that law had been challenged for almost 7 years. Thus, for example, the Consejo Nacional de Áreas de Conservación (CONAC) began operating only very recently in accordance with the guidelines established by the Law.
They further argue that the Regional Councils have only recently begun operating and exercising some of their powers and functions. This, of course, is attributable to the same paralysis to which the system was subjected at the time by the constitutional challenge. They state that the Regulations to the Ley de Biodiversidad were not promulgated until 8 de abril del 2008, for the reasons they cited. Among other provisions, those regulations established: “Transitory Provision I.—Within twelve months following the entry into force of these Regulations, the Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación shall formulate and officially adopt the technical guidelines for the management categories of Costa Rica’s protected wildlife areas.” e) Moreover, it is highly relevant to note that the report of the Contraloría General de la República omits and disregards CONAC’s significant contributions concerning the matters identified by the Contraloría. That body has the following functions conferred upon it by the Ley de Biodiversidad, yet it is not even taken into account in the report issued by the oversight body.
These recognize that the participation of local communities and residents generally in the conservation and rational use of natural resources is a fundamental requirement for effective and attainable sustainable development in harmony with nature. It was precisely this wealth of legal rules and international principles that made it possible to develop in Costa Rica a model that must be viewed in a decentralized manner. Accordingly, territorial units known as Áreas de Conservación were created, capable of harmonizing current environmental legislation with the circumstances of their geographical boundaries, in close coordination with the society interacting there and with the rest of the public sector specific to that jurisdiction. This model establishes a new system for the administrative management of the Áreas Silvestres Protegidas, seeking to involve not only the State’s authoritative and technical judgment but also the citizens who live and reside in those areas.
Article 29 of the Ley de Biodiversidad creates the so-called Consejos Regionales del Área de Conservación (CORAC), whose composition requires a public call to all interested nongovernmental and community organizations so that, in addition to the public servant responsible for the respective Área de Conservación and the municipal representative, representatives from different organized sectors in the area are included. Such participation is essential, considering that the corresponding Consejo Regional forms part of the administrative structure of the Áreas de Conservación and that two of its functions are precisely to ensure that community needs are incorporated into the plans and activities of the Área de Conservación and to encourage the participation of the Area’s various sectors in analyzing, discussing, and seeking solutions to regional problems involving natural resources and the environment.
In turn, depending on the complexity of the Área de Conservación, the Consejos Regionales may establish Consejos Locales through a resolution creating them with clear rules and specific purposes. The Consejo Nacional de Áreas de Conservación (CONAC) thus constitutes the forum in which the circumstances and experience of various sectors converge: civil society and organizations, through the consejos locales and members of the CORAC, and the larger sectoral organizations through CONAGEBIO. Within this conceptual and legal framework, contributions are provided that have demonstrated positive results and identify the technical, legal, and operational gaps that must be filled to ensure proper management. For this reason, the narrow interpretation that the Contraloría General de la República gives to the model is surprising, as it refers to the alleged inadvisability of the composition and functions assigned by law to the Consejo Nacional de Áreas de Conservación because of its excessive number of members, and even more so when it objects to the participation of the Directors of the Áreas de Conservación therein.
In the agency head’s own words: “Needless to say, this conception is the result of an entire process through which Costa Rican environmental law has matured: Ley de Conservación de la Vida Silvestre; Ley Orgánica del Ambiente; Ley de Biodiversidad; Ley Forestal; as well as an impressive number of decrees, agreements, and administrative acts.” The agency head states in that official communication: “(...) The detractors of the Ley de Biodiversidad and of other existing and current laws seek in bad faith to undermine the participatory model proposed by the Ley de Biodiversidad, which is based on clear and precise technical criteria, by attributing defects and shortcomings to it before this model even begins to operate. These detractors are the ones who have misled the Contraloría General de la República, because they have concealed relevant information and facts that, in one way or another, could have changed the conclusions of the report issued by the oversight body....” The head of MINAET states: “...
By adopting this position, these detractors are not only acting irresponsibly and in complete abuse of their authority, but also seek to destabilize our country through repressive policy.” They point out that the report of the Contraloría General de la República fails to state that some of the problems impeding optimal management of SINAC and therefore of MINAET are essentially attributable to the following: a) The absence of, or lack of clarity in, the legal definition of management categories (categorías de manejo), even though they are defined very clearly by law. Over the years, this has led the Administration to change the rules and its interpretation of current legislation depending on the minister in office, thereby constantly affecting the inhabitants of our country’s coastal areas and creating legal uncertainty, abuses, and chaos. b) A lack of knowledge and erroneous interpretation of current legislation, as well as constant changes in the interpretation of the country’s environmental laws. c) The inability to coordinate the enforcement and implementation of environmental laws in harmony with the country’s other institutions, thereby delaying comprehensive land-use planning (ordenamiento territorial integral) concerning ASP.
This is due to the highly particular interests of extremist environmental groups and others with various interests, which, through legal arrangements coordinated at different levels, obstruct the implementation and execution of this process of decentralization and citizen participation. This situation has prevented clear and coordinated ASP policies from being prioritized on the national agenda. The result, they state, is that the internal capacity of the Áreas de Conservación to take specific action to protect natural resources has been stifled because a small group of people seeks to administer the system centrally while ignoring the new environmental context. As the head of MINAET states verbatim: “It is highly contradictory and troubling that the Contraloría General de la República takes the position that CONAC and CORAC should not perform the functions granted to them by law, a position far removed from the function that the law assigns to the oversight body.
Indeed, in its report the Contraloría General de la República tacitly disregards these bodies and asks other bodies lacking jurisdiction to perform and carry out functions that do not belong to them by law, which is much more serious.” They state that, as this honorable Sala Constitucional can see, the victims of all these interpretations and abuses by the Contraloría General De La Republica, Procuraduría General de la República, and Estado Costarricense are the very communities that settled in the areas in question long before any management category existed. Article 50 of the Constitución Política de Costa Rica states that the State shall seek the greatest well-being of all the country’s inhabitants by organizing and promoting production and the most appropriate distribution of wealth. Every person has the right to a healthy and ecologically balanced environment. Accordingly, every person has standing (legitimación) to report acts that infringe that right and to seek reparation for the harm caused.
They also argue that we are faced with several acts of the Public Administration that violate all the fundamental principles that must govern the State’s relations with a private party subject to the Administration (administrado), or, as in this case, with many such parties. Regarding the violation of the principle against retroactivity of administrative acts (principio de irretroactividad de los actos administrativos), they assert that, as established by the Ley General de la Administración Pública (LGAP), an administrative act cannot retroactively produce effects against such a party. They further argue that Articles 30 and 41 of the Constitución Política enshrine a series of fundamental safeguards of an instrumental and procedural nature that must be observed whenever such a party interacts with the State. Our communities have been victims of deception and abuse by the State and have therefore had to invest time and resources in defending themselves against instructions issued from San José to the detriment of their most sacred rights.
They state that it is clear that the reports issued on this matter by the oversight body, and so strongly defended by SITRAMINAE, are based on partial criteria, without supporting grounds or technical studies; disregard the history of settlement in the area; completely ignore current legislation; question procedures; and issue unlawful instructions in violation of the very law in force. The creation of any protected area necessarily and mandatorily contemplates the presence of human beings within it. The Organización de las Naciones Unidas, the principal formal authority on human rights and public international law, defines human development as “the expansion of the choices available to all people in a society. This means that men and women are at the center of the development process. It also means ‘protecting the opportunities in the lives of future generations and the natural systems upon which all life depends (Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo, Informe sobre Desarrollo Humano 1996).’ Consequently, the fundamental purpose of development is to create an enabling environment in which everyone can enjoy long, healthy, and creative lives.
Economic growth is a means to human development.” Historically, the Caribbean in general, and the Southern Caribbean in particular, has been unable to free itself from a state of insecurity in every respect—now most clearly manifested as legal uncertainty—because it is an area where the State constantly changes the rules. Quite the opposite: for many years, the philosophy of numerous central and local governments concerning growth and the provision of quality of life has not fostered human development in the Caribbean. They allege that, through this attitude, the State is condemning this province and the people who reside and live in the area to insecurity in all its forms, thereby condemning them to perpetual poverty.
Sustainable human development must necessarily include a clear balance and a very delicate equilibrium among poverty reduction, job creation, environmental protection, and the promotion of progress for all human beings under equal conditions and without discrimination of any kind. This, precisely, was zealously safeguarded by MINAE and the competent authorities through the zoning instrument (zonificación), which not only established an orderly framework but also entailed a serious study grounded in what is most sacred and important: achieving a balance between human development and the environment, since the Law itself established the creation of Wildlife Refuges (Refugios de Vida Silvestre) in different categories, on the understanding that human beings were their central focus, in harmony with the environment, and that the residents themselves voluntarily agreed to have their lands encumbered in order to maintain complete harmony with the environment and contribute to its protection.
They argue that, clearly, their communities have historically acquired rights predating any legislation that seeks to uproot them and disregard their rights. They state that, when this Law was pending before the Asamblea Legislativa, the legislative initiative was justified primarily by the need to provide a temporary solution to the chaos, because the State requires time to adopt the best measures for land-use planning (ordenamiento territorial) in the Maritime-Terrestrial Zone (Zona Marítimo Terrestre), Border Zone (Zona Fronteriza), and State Natural Heritage (Patrimonio Natural del Estado). It was further indicated that, in addressing land regularization (regularización territorial) in the regions subject to the moratorium, it was necessary to consider the particular circumstances prevailing in each specific area, and that several bills were being considered in the legislative process, making it necessary to afford Parliament sufficient time for an appropriate discussion of each of these initiatives.
MINAE has likewise conveyed the foregoing to this Honorable Chamber. Within this framework, the Executive Branch has established land-use planning as one of its goals under the National Development Plan (Plan Nacional de Desarrollo), understood as the spatial expression of the Nation’s economic, social, cultural, and ecological policy, which establishes an interdisciplinary and comprehensive approach to development and makes it possible to integrate the consideration of matters such as economic competitiveness, environmental sustainability, and social cohesion. The State has defined a series of measures to be implemented; however, they require long-term action. As part of this implementation process, work has been underway on several special laws, as well as on land-use plans that are currently under consideration and that could establish that, in most of these areas, current land use conforms to the use prescribed in the regulatory plan (plan regulador).
In addressing land regularization in the Border Zone and the State Natural Heritage, it is necessary to consider the particular circumstances prevailing in each specific area. Accordingly, several bills are currently being considered in the legislative process, making it necessary to afford the Legislative Branch sufficient time for a serious, thorough technical and legal discussion of each of these initiatives. The Executive Branch has established a mandatory deadline for seeking a solution to the social problem existing within these areas, arising from the abuses and disorder directed against the communities that have inhabited them since long before the enactment of environmental protection laws. In this regard, the measure adopted does not in itself entail any neglect by the Ministry of the protection and conservation of natural resources; however, the land-use planning process clearly cannot be completed overnight, whereas the social problem caused by carrying out evictions and demolitions affecting families that have built their lives in these special areas is immediate.
Therefore, in light of the urgent need to provide a temporary solution while the best measures for land-use planning in these areas can be adopted, the Executive Branch proposed that, for a period of 24 months, no eviction, dismantling, or demolition of works, activities, and projects be carried out in the Maritime-Terrestrial Zone, Border Zone, and State Natural Heritage. Pursuant to the cited provisions and the considerations set forth above, they request that the constitutional challenge (acción de inconstitucionalidad) be dismissed in its entirety, since the challenged articles do not conflict with articles 33 and 50 of the Constitution.
2012-12716 at 16:01 hours on 12 de septiembre de 2012, in which the Constitutional Chamber stated with complete clarity: “The protective regime established in the Ley Forestal for the State Natural Heritage (Patrimonio Natural del Estado) entails the following: the lands are inalienable; their possession by private parties ‘shall create no right in their favor,’ and the State’s action to recover them is not subject to any statute of limitations; they may not be registered in the Public Registry through possessory information proceedings (información posesoria); their invasion and occupation are punishable as criminal offenses; logging, forest exploitation (aprovechamiento forestal), and land-use change (cambio de uso del suelo) are prohibited, and only research, training, and ecotourism activities may be authorized (articles 1, paragraph 2°, 3 subsection a), 14, 15, 18, 58 subsections a) and b), and 61 subsection c).” In accordance with the foregoing and considering the public-domain nature (naturaleza demanial) governing these assets, it states that the challenged provisions clearly undermine the special and heightened protection regime established by our legal system for those resources which, because of their particular purpose with respect to public use and general benefit—and only exceptionally for private use in accordance with predefined legal rules and parameters—are now threatened and exposed to inaction by the Administration and judicial authorities in ensuring their protection, by virtue of the legislative limitation that seeks—through the temporary provision—to prevent the exercise of the public powers and judicial authority that are inherent and necessary to safeguard those assets, which are especially important to the fulfillment of the essential purposes of our Social, Democratic, and Environmental State governed by the rule of law.
These reasons justify the annulment of that body of law. VIOLATION OF THE STATE’S DUTY TO PRESERVE A HEALTHY AND ECOLOGICALLY BALANCED ENVIRONMENT. (ARTICLES 21, 50, 69, AND 89 OF THE POLITICAL CONSTITUTION). It indicates that, given the nature of the aforementioned assets, the challenged Law establishes a suspension, for a period of 2 years, of administrative self-enforcement powers (potestades de autotutela) to evict persons, demolish structures, and suspend activities and projects involving assets that form part of the public domain. It must be borne in mind that, pursuant to Article 50 of the Political Constitution, the State assumes a constitutional mandate to protect environmental balance, of which the assets identified in the challenged provision form an important part, and which is connected to the very foundations of life for both present and future generations. It states that this is not merely a formal duty; rather, this responsibility—delegated by the people through the normative force of the Constitution—constitutes a substantive limit on the exercise of the powers of public authorities.
In this case, it notes, the legislature’s discretionary powers are limited in advance, since they must not run counter to the natural foundations sustaining the right to a dignified life under conditions of quality suitable for the development of the various species. Regarding this issue, in decision No. 2988-1999 at 11:47 hours on 23 de abril de 1999, the Constitutional Chamber held: “IV.- It must also be emphasized, as stated above, that in order to give effect to and comply with Article 50 of the Political Constitution, it is not sufficient for public authorities to enact measures protecting the environment. It is also essential that, in the performance of their duties, those same officials refrain from issuing acts that contradict the aforementioned constitutional principle, as occurs with respect to the provision whose constitutionality is under review….” Accordingly, Law No. 9073, which is challenged here, clearly contradicts the constitutional principles contained in Articles 21, 50, 69, and 89 of the Political Constitution, insofar as it temporarily suspends the exercise of administrative self-enforcement powers for the immediate protection of assets belonging to the Nation, thereby impairing the effective enjoyment of the fundamental right to a healthy and ecologically balanced environment.
It should also be noted that this impairment is not remedied by the provision contained in Article 2 of the challenged Law, insofar as it limits the exceptional possibility contemplated therein to intervention by the Environmental Administrative Tribunal (Tribunal Administrativo Ambiental) or the Minister of Environment and Energy (Ministro de Ambiente y Energía), although these are not the only authorities with jurisdiction in this area, since various other administrative bodies also have concurrent authority, including the Municipalities, SETENA, the Costa Rican Tourism Institute (Instituto Costarricense de Turismo, ICT), and the Office of the Attorney General of the Republic (Procuraduría General de la República), to name only a few. LACK OF ADEQUATE TECHNICAL STUDIES PRIOR TO THE ENACTMENT OF THE LAW, IN VIOLATION OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL PRINCIPLES OF PROPORTIONALITY AND REASONABLENESS AND OF ADHERENCE TO SCIENCE AND TECHNICAL EXPERTISE.
Ley 9073 commits an error of grave magnitude, it asserts, by treating as equivalent, on the basis of an entirely discretionary legislative decision without any technical or scientific foundation, public assets that are heterogeneous in their environmental characteristics. In doing so, it maintains, the Law fails to consider the different categories of protection applicable to those resources, the particular characteristics of their ecosystems, and their objectives—which differ substantially from one another—in terms of both the type of management and the special protection that the State must guarantee them. Under this reasoning, it states, it is readily apparent that, although these territories share certain basic parameters of protection, the significance arising, for example, from the existence of a national park subject to absolute protection is not the same as that of a wetland of international importance, a national monument of unique historical, scientific, or cultural value, or a national wildlife refuge whose purpose is to protect endangered species of flora and fauna, and so forth.
In that regard, the technical and environmental considerations applicable to these public-domain assets (bienes demaniales) are in no way comparable for purposes of treating them as though they were resources with homogeneous characteristics, much less for purposes of regarding them as susceptible to possession—even temporarily—by private parties. In this respect, it notes that, in decision No. 14467-2010 at 9:12 hours on 31 de agosto de 2010, the Constitutional Chamber stated that technical studies are mandatory in order to substantiate and adequately guarantee the reasonableness and proportionality of the objectives sought through the issuance of generally applicable statutory or regulatory provisions. On this point, it emphasizes the following: “…it is not possible to conduct a ‘reasonableness’ analysis without a coherent line of reasoning supported by evidence. This applies, of course, except in cases in which the ‘unreasonableness’ is evident and manifest (judgment 1999-05236 at fourteen hours on siete de julio de mil novecientos noventa y nueve).
Proof of reasonableness is also essential for analyzing the challenged provision because, in the opinion of the majority of this Court, the absence of arguments, objective data, or even minimal justification means that Article 2 lacks technical reasonableness and therefore, as a provision that renders previously recognized and enforceable rights under an existing rule ineffective, violates the principle of reasonableness (…) Both the American Convention on Human Rights and the aforementioned Convention impose upon the State the obligation to adopt progressive measures ensuring the full effectiveness of such rights. Legal doctrine refers to the ‘minimum obligations’ of States, which may be expanded according to available resources and taking into account the level of development of the States, concepts also present in the United Nations International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
Therefore, if the degree of protection afforded to rights is expanded within the domestic legal system, public authorities may not subsequently disregard or restrict those rights through statutory or administrative provisions lacking sufficient technical justification.” Consequently, the possibility of conducting an analysis of the reasonableness and strict necessity of the provisions of Ley 9073, insofar as they establish an exception to the regime protecting environmental assets, would depend on verifying the prior existence of suitable studies conclusively establishing that the environment, as the common heritage of all humanity, will be preserved even with the suspension measures adopted through legislation. Nevertheless, a review of the legislative file for what was then bill No. 18.440 shows that the provisions lack adequate studies or assessments scientifically and technically supporting the enactment of that legislation and indicating how it will resolve, in a manner consistent with the Costa Rican legal system, the problems of persons irregularly occupying the territories known as “special zones,” without causing any deterioration of the environment protected by the constitutional provisions.
Accordingly, it is clear that, in environmental matters, decision-making must be supported by suitable technical and scientific studies that are reasonable and proportionate, thereby limiting in advance the discretion of the Public Branches (Legislative and Executive) concerning statutory and other generally applicable provisions that could affect the environment. In this regard, it cites decisions 2063-2007 at 14:40 hours on 14 de febrero de 2007 and 17126-2006 at 15:05 hours on 28 de noviembre de 2006. As relevant here, the first stated: “3.- The objectification of environmental protection (objetivación de la tutela ambiental), which, as this Court stated in judgment number 14293-2005 at fourteen hours fifty-two hours on diecinueve de octubre del dos mil cinco, is a principle that can in no way be confused with the preceding one, insofar as it entails the need to support decision-making in this field with technical studies, both with respect to actions by the Administration and generally applicable provisions—statutory and regulatory—from which derives the requirement of ‘adherence to science and technical expertise,’ an element that provides the Administration’s decisions in this field with a technical and scientific basis and, accordingly, limits and conditions the Administration’s discretion in its actions—under the terms established in Article 16 of the General Law of Public Administration (Ley General de la Administración Pública)—.
Thus, in light of the results derived from those technical studies—such as environmental impact studies (estudios de impacto ambiental)—an objective technical criterion is established that indicates either the environmental feasibility (viabilidad ambiental) of the project or the likelihood of evident harm to the environment, natural resources, or human health, a circumstance requiring the adoption of precautionary measures or the rejection of the proposed project, work, or activity; and where there is “reasonable doubt,” decisions must be made in favor of the environment (pro-nature principle (principio pro-natura)).” Thus, for example, the bill contained in expediente No. 18.440, subsequently enacted as Ley de la República No. 9073, lacks an official technical and formal study or assessment that would make it possible to identify and verify the number of families and natural and/or legal persons intended to be subject to that regulation, as well as their legal status, length of residence or ties to the area, the type of economic activity they engage in, their dependence on those activities and on the area, their economic circumstances, whether they reside permanently in the area, the type of infrastructure constructed, and other relevant aspects.
Most importantly, there is no certainty that the legal measures adopted will not cause substantial harm to the environment warranting the balancing or calibration of those provisions, or a decision not to enact them. In the same vein, the law is unsupported by impact documentation or studies issued by the Secretaría Técnica Nacional Ambiental (SETENA) confirming the project’s environmental feasibility in accordance with Costa Rica’s obligations under the Rio Declaration, as developed by Article 50 of the Constitution and Article 17 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente, among other provisions. On the contrary, the scale and nature of the problem sought to be addressed remain undefined, since the explanatory statement originally merely asserted that “these areas have been occupied for decades by generations of ‘thousands of Costa Rican families,’ who have built their homes and engaged in activities such as artisanal fishing, local tourism, and agriculture without holding a concession (concesión).” However, the basic information underlying the legislative measure did not provide a reliable baseline indicating the actual circumstances surrounding possession of the Zona Marítimo Terrestre, the Patrimonio Natural del Estado, and the Zona Fronteriza.
It was therefore impossible to verify that the bill’s beneficiaries satisfied the conditions qualifying them as such and held rights consistent with the body of applicable law (bloque de juridicidad), without resulting harm to the environment, which would constitute a misuse of authority (desviación de poder). It states that this omission was brought to the attention of the Asamblea Legislativa by the Contraloría General through oficio No. 08285 (DFOE-AE-0319) of 21 de agosto de 2012, addressed to the Comisión Permanente Especial de Turismo in response to the “Consulta sobre el proyecto de ley denominado Ley de Protección a los ciudadanos ocupantes de zonas clasificadas como especiales, expediente No. 18440.” Nevertheless, it does not appear that the warning issued at that time was heeded, which, in its view, gives rise to a possible constitutional defect that this Honorable Court is asked to examine.
Consequently, the lack of adequate studies indiscriminately benefits an unknown, unidentified, and undetermined number of persons—some of whom might fall within the circumstances referenced in the bill’s explanatory statement (peasants, fishers, artisans, original inhabitants, among others). The fact remains, however, that it also enables inequality and clandestine conduct with respect to persons who have not complied with the rules prohibiting the unlawful appropriation (usurpación) of public-domain property (bienes del dominio público), because it indirectly and indiscriminately facilitates the imminent continuation of other manifestly irregular situations falling outside those circumstances. This is because it will automatically permit not only natural persons to remain, but will also encompass, without distinction, legal persons, companies, nonresidents, persons who do not depend on coastal activities, and non-Costa Rican beneficiaries, even where they would not potentially qualify for rights under the ordinary legislation governing this subject matter, for example, in the case of concessions in the Zona Marítimo Terrestre.
In its view, that situation is unconstitutional because the property concerned falls within different categories of the public domain and, as such, is outside private commerce (fuera del comercio de los hombres). This, together with its environmental importance, requires rigorous and detailed technical studies demonstrating the feasibility of those regulations. In this regard, reference should be made to section 38 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente, which provides: “Reduction of protected wild areas (áreas silvestres protegidas)./ The surface area of protected wild areas constituting the natural heritage of the State (patrimonio natural del Estado), regardless of their management category, may be reduced only by a Law of the Republic, after completion of the technical studies justifying that measure.” Although that provision was originally directed at a different circumstance, this oversight body considers, by integration, that the purpose of that rule applies here insofar as technical information must be provided to justify the proposed legislative measure, as in the case of a stay imposed by the law now being challenged.
That law permits irregular—and widespread—private occupation and use even in areas where such authorization would not be legally permissible, thereby producing, in practical terms, a temporary reduction in the designation underpinning the special protective status imposed by the legal system on that public property.
VIOLATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL TREATIES SIGNED BY COSTA RICA CONCERNING THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS RELATING TO ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION. (ARTICLE 48 OF THE POLITICAL CONSTITUTION). It states that, in resolución No 1995-2313 of 16:18 hours on 9 de mayo de 1995, the Sala Constitucional placed international treaties concerning human rights above the Constitución Política insofar as they provide greater guarantees than domestic law. It is therefore possible to speak, in two directions, of the internationalization of Constitutional Law and, at the same time, the constitutionalization of International Human Rights Law, including the right to a healthy environment as an expression of rights recognized worldwide. The various categories referred to by the challenged Ley No. 9073 as “special zones” have been protected not only by statutory provisions but also by rules of International Human Rights Law, which form part of and define the constitutional body of law (bloque de constitucionalidad) governing the Costa Rican legal system.
Among other instruments of International Human Rights Law, the following international treaties are deemed to have been violated at the global level: the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (in its entirety); the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (in its entirety, but principally Articles 15, 17, and 25); the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (in its entirety); the Convention on Biological Diversity (in its entirety); the CITES Convention on International Trade in Wild Flora and Fauna (in its entirety); the Convention for the Protection of the Cultural and Natural Heritage (in its entirety); the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance as Waterfowl Habitat, known as the “Ramsar Convention” (in its entirety); the Universal Declaration of Emerging Human Rights (Article 3); and the World Charter for Nature (in its entirety).
Likewise, at the continental level, there are certain instruments recognized within the Inter-American System and adopted by Costa Rica as international commitments, namely: the Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Protocol of San Salvador) (Article 11); and the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Article III). Finally, within the Central American context, it identifies three international instruments adopted by Costa Rica: the Regional Convention for the Management and Conservation of Natural Forest Ecosystems and the Development of Forest Plantations; the Convention for the Conservation of Biodiversity and the Protection of Priority Wilderness Areas in Central America; and the Central American Convention for the Protection of the Environment. All the provisions of these instruments apply to the constitutional challenge (acción de inconstitucionalidad) at issue, since the country has undertaken regional, continental, and universal commitments concerning the protection of natural resources and protected wild areas that would be impaired by the challenged regulations for the reasons already stated.
It asserts that, taken together, all these instruments of International Law protect the environment comprehensively and at multiple levels, from different perspectives, as a fundamental human right, for the purpose of preserving the conditions necessary for an adequate quality of life in solidarity with future generations. It emphasizes that, in resolución No. 10578-2007 of 16:40 hours on 25 de julio de 2007, the Sala Constitucional stated: “Certainly, humankind has the right to use the environment for its own development, but it also has the corresponding duty to protect and preserve it for present and future generations. (…) ‘Humankind has the fundamental right to freedom, equality, and the enjoyment of adequate living conditions in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and bears the solemn obligation to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations.’” Some of these international treaties are deemed to have been violated in their entirety, given the breadth of the risk created by the text of Ley No. 9073, insofar as it generally and indiscriminately suspends the exercise of protective authority over this property, preventing the competent judicial and administrative authorities from evicting persons and demolishing structures, as well as from suspending activities and projects in the Zona Marítimo Terrestre, the Zona Fronteriza, and the Patrimonio Natural del Estado, notwithstanding the possible existence of circumstances manifestly contrary to the statutory, constitutional, and treaty-based body of law ratified by the Costa Rican State concerning protection of the universal right to a healthy environment.
In this regard, he argues that the evident significance of public-domain property (bienes del dominio público) that could eventually be affected creates a situation of widespread noncompliance with the described rules of International Human Rights Law, insofar as it temporarily permits the continuation—and even the potential increase—of irregular occupation (ocupación irregular) of protected wild areas (áreas silvestres protegidas), forest reserves (reservas forestales), biological reserves (reservas biológicas), national reserves (reservas nacionales), forests, national parks, wildlife refuges (refugios de vida silvestre), lands suitable for forestry (terrenos de aptitud forestal), watersheds (cuencas hidrográficas), wetlands (humedales), mangroves, estuaries, islands, national monuments, protection areas (áreas de protección), border areas (zonas limítrofes), biological diversity, the State’s natural heritage (patrimonio natural del Estado), and the maritime-terrestrial zone (zona marítimo terrestre), among others.
Because of their ecological importance and aesthetic value, their protection is guaranteed through the fundamental right enshrined in the Political Constitution and through international human-rights commitments. Nevertheless, all these properties and resources, although by definition inalienable, not subject to acquisitive prescription, and immune from attachment (inalienables, imprescriptibles e inembargables), are placed at widespread risk by the temporary suspension of the State’s powers to act for their immediate protection through the prerogatives arising from the exercise of public powers, in safeguarding the general interest and the common good. As an example, he cites the fact that Wildlife Refuges have as their primary purpose the protection of endangered plant and animal species and likewise possess great scientific value, hence the interest in conserving them (as discussed in resolution No. 18702-2010 of 15:27 hours on 10 de noviembre de 2010, issued by the Constitutional Chamber).
Nevertheless, because they belong to the State’s natural heritage and are consequently subject to the moratorium established by law No. 9073, they may be adversely affected by human activity insofar as persons are allowed to remain in these territories for private purposes, thereby jeopardizing the very existence of threatened species that depend on preserving the site’s natural conditions. Section 34 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente (currently in force) establishes a general standard for action to safeguard these resources when it states that, “as soon as possible,” the State must act to adopt appropriate measures to protect protected wild areas, in order to ensure respect for the characteristics and conditions for which they were created. The same applies to sections 12 and 13 of the Ley sobre Zona Marítima Terrestre and section 8 of the Ley de Tierras y Colonización (with respect to border areas).
In his view, these provisions are consistent with Article 50 of the Political Constitution insofar as, regarding the right to a healthy and ecologically balanced environment, it states: “The State shall guarantee, defend, and preserve that right.” However, Ley No. 9073 suspends the application of these constitutional and statutory provisions for a considerable period, which is deemed extremely risky given the environmental fragility of these properties and their ecosystems. It should also be noted that the right to a healthy environment must no longer be understood as limited by national borders. On the contrary, protection of this fundamental right—which may be regarded as “cross-cutting with respect to all other rights, or as a synthesis thereof”—transcends the perspective of each individual State and becomes a fundamental guarantee of a supranational and universal nature, given that what is at stake is the protection of each and every species inhabiting the planet and, ultimately, life itself.
In its consistent case law, the Constitutional Chamber has defended not only the normative and binding nature of International Human Rights Instruments concerning the protection of environmental resources, but also their diffuse nature (for purposes of protection by all inhabitants and institutions), as well as their supra-constitutional status where international instruments afford a higher level of protection or a particular guarantee beyond those established in the fundamental law. In this regard, he states that section 48 of the Political Constitution, and with it the International Treaties described above, is deemed to have been violated insofar as Ley No. 9073 establishes a general period of 2 years during which the State is required to suspend the exercise of its police powers over this property (administrative self-enforcement over public-domain property (autotutela demanial) for purposes of eviction and demolition in cases of irregular occupation).
In other words, the Public Authority, bound in this case by statutory, constitutional, and supranational rules, is placed in a situation in which it is categorically barred from exercising its principal self-enforcement powers for the timely and effective protection of what are termed “special zones,” which have been regarded as vitally important to conserving the environment as a human right that extends across all humankind. VIOLATION OF THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE AND IN DUBIO PRO NATURA (ARTICLE 15 OF THE RIO DE JANEIRO DECLARATION). On this point, he establishes that, in resolution No. 2988-1999 of 11:57 hours on 23 de abril de 1999, the Constitutional Chamber held as follows: “This Chamber has repeatedly stated that the purposes of a provision must be proportionate and reasonable in light of the objective it seeks to achieve, as well as the consequences that may arise from it. Accordingly, it cannot be permitted that, in order to resolve for a few persons a social problem such as housing, as in this case, the country’s protected areas be endangered and a significant and imminent risk be created that could harm our environmental conservation areas, thereby violating the precautionary principle set forth in the RIO DECLARATION and the in dubio pro natura principle, such that the protection of our natural resources must be guided by a preventive approach; that is, if degradation and deterioration are to be minimized, precaution and prevention must be the prevailing principles.” In this regard, he considers that the complete absence of technical criteria ensuring that the environment in the so-called “special zones” will not be adversely affected constitutes a violation of the environmental precautionary principle (principio precautorio).
On this same matter, in resolution No. 18702-2010 of 15:27 hours on 10 de noviembre de 2010, the Constitutional Chamber stated: “There is therefore no justification for protecting these areas in harmony with the purposes already stated, only to subsequently exclude, without technical reasoning, some zones but not others from the possibility of being granted under concession, without assessing whether they will thereby be affected. The absence of such a criterion violates the environmental precautionary principle: One of the guiding principles of Environmental Law is the precautionary principle, also known as prudent avoidance. This principle is embodied in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, or the Rio Declaration, which literally states: ‘Principle 15.—In order to protect the environment, States shall widely apply the precautionary approach according to their capabilities.
Where there is a threat of serious and irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.’ Within the domestic legal system, the Ley de Biodiversidad (No. 7788 of 30 de abril de 1998), in its Article 11, adopts the following principles as interpretive parameters: ‘1.—Preventive approach: It is recognized that anticipating, preventing, and addressing the causes of biodiversity loss or threats thereto is of vital importance. 2.—Precautionary approach, or in dubio pro natura: Where there is a danger or threat of serious or imminent harm to elements of biodiversity and the knowledge associated with them, the absence of scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing the adoption of effective protective measures.’” Thus, the precautionary principle must be applied whenever there is uncertainty concerning the danger or risk associated with the conditions and scale of the harm that might be caused, such that, where there is reasonable doubt about the possibility of causing an adverse effect, measures must be adopted that enable the conservation and preservation of environmental conditions so as to prevent situations that could cause irreversible harm to the environment.
However, as already noted, during the legislative proceedings concerning bill No. 18.440, there were no technical assessments reasonably ensuring environmental protection, even though some of these ecosystems—such as national parks, wetlands, wildlife refuges, and others forming part of the State’s natural heritage—are areas that were protected with the intention that no human activity (housing, commerce, industry, among others) would occur within them. The purpose was to ensure that these sites, many of which have extremely fragile environmental conditions, would not be adversely affected by any type of pollution resulting from anthropogenic interventions unrelated to the natural processes occurring on this environmentally significant property. In this regard, withdrawing protection from this public-domain property in a general and temporary manner, without technical criteria adequately and reasonably ensuring—in each individual case—the protection of the environment on each parcel of public-domain land referred to as a “special zone,” is contrary to the precautionary principle, because doing so violates both the precautionary principle and the principle of progressive realization of the right to a healthy environment (principio de progresividad del derecho a un ambiente sano) within the framework for safeguarding fundamental rights.
Likewise, in light of the bill’s stated rationale, the expectation created by the future promise of obtaining private rights over this type of property is unlawful and contrary to the principle of “legitimate expectations” (confianza legítima), because it establishes an implicit promise that the property will later be removed from the public domain (desafectación) (insofar as the use of these territories is regulated), which would constitute an undue privilege for a number of persons—thus far unknown and unidentified—many of whom do not meet the conditions that motivated the law’s enactment (families and residents who have lived in these zones for decades, local inhabitants, persons with ties to the area, farmers, and fishers).
In the same vein, maintaining an unequal, uncertain, and permissive system of wealth distribution that encourages the acquisition of rights over property outside private commerce—inalienable, not subject to acquisitive prescription, and immune from attachment—based on the subsequent and retroactive recognition of possible unlawful situations that are contrary to the regulatory provisions governing property forming part of the public domain (demanio), and that are protected by constitutional and international-law provisions intended to preserve the environment, also violates the principle of legitimate expectations (principio de confianza legítima), as derived from the principles of legality, equality, and legal certainty. Moreover, it is contradictory, he states, when the law provides as follows in section 5: “During the term of the moratorium, the State shall not permit new occupations in the areas referred to in Article 1 of this law.” Compliance with this provision is impossible, because throughout history the State and the other entities and bodies charged with protecting this property and exercising police powers over it (Municipalidades, Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación, Instituto Costarricense de Turismo, Tribunal Ambiental Administrativo, Procuraduría General de la República, among others) have been unable to stop persons from unlawfully entering such property.
This situation is aggravated precisely by the enactment of the aforementioned law, because the authorities do not even have studies or data concerning the natural and legal persons who currently continue to occupy the so-called “special zones.” From that standpoint, the legislative history of the bill contains no official information identifying the beneficiary families, the nature of their interests, their locations, or the size and conditions of the occupied area. Accordingly, the existence of the moratorium is not only contrary to public policy but also enables the continued and new devastation of these sites and, consequently, the indiscriminate entry of new unlawful possessors, without the State, in the broad sense, having the documentary means necessary to verify whether a new occupation is occurring or whether other unlawful acts arose after the enactment of Ley 9073. In addition, section five of the aforementioned body of law does not determine which State entity or body is responsible for preventing “new occupations.” Nor does it provide the human, material, and budgetary resources needed to perform that task.
Together with the absence of a census and assessment capable of counting and determining the actual circumstances of the current possessors in those three zones, this makes effective monitoring and control of this property impossible from every standpoint; such monitoring and control are essential to prevent new unlawful situations from arising during the two-year term of the aforementioned Law. The measures established by the challenged law create a series of risks that are contrary to the constitutional principle of reasonableness. Although, as a matter of principle, Ley 9073 does not provide for the complete removal of this public-domain property from the public domain (desafectación), according to the literal wording of section 38 of the Ley Orgánica del Ambiente, he reiterates that the oversight body understands that, given the seriousness and risk of the type of legislative measure adopted and its potential consequences, appropriate technical studies concerning environmental protection are absolutely necessary, considering the irreversible consequences that could result from the general, unlawful, and disorderly occupation of the public domain.
Accordingly, the requirement for studies should not be confined or limited exclusively to situations that entail, as such, the removal per se of property forming part of the public domain. On the contrary, appropriate, necessary, reasonable, and proportionate technical grounds must be present in each and every decision of the constituted branches of government, particularly when the right to a healthy environment is placed at imminent risk through legislative decisions based entirely on discretionary determinations, as occurred in this case. Furthermore, section 109 of the Ley de Biodiversidad establishes responsibility for the burden of proof (carga de la prueba) in matters involving environmental harm as follows: “Burden of proof. The burden of proving the absence of unauthorized pollution, degradation, or adverse effects shall rest with the person requesting approval, permission, or access to biodiversity, or with the person accused of having caused environmental harm.” This provision is a direct manifestation of the precautionary principle (principio precautorio) and prudent avoidance (evitación prudente).
Nevertheless, contrary to what is described in the preceding section, sections 2 and 3 of Ley 9073 reverse the rationale that this provision seeks to establish. Despite the environmental authority vested in other institutions and bodies, they state that MINAE and Tribunal Ambiental Administrativo—the latter only in the cases described in section 2—shall be the only institutions authorized to act and issue precautionary measures (medidas cautelares) for the benefit of the environment, after verifying the harm or risk of harm and based on technical grounds prepared by those institutions. This constitutes regression in this area and a violation of the environmental precautionary principle. Given the fragility of the affected ecosystems, protective measures must be timely and immediate. Delayed action by the competent authorities would, in many cases, result in harm of irreversible proportions.
Furthermore, the Executive Branch issued Decreto Ejecutivo 37622-MINAET “Reglamento al Artículo 3 de la Ley No. 9073 Ley de Protección a los Ocupantes de Zonas Clasificadas como Especiales,” published in supplement 97 of La Gaceta 101 of May 28, 2013, which, in summary, classifies the issuance of precautionary measures as “exceptional circumstances” and shifts the burden of proving the existence of harm or the risk thereof to the public authorities identified in that section. This is contrary to the universally recognized environmental standards set forth in the Rio de Janeiro Declaration, particularly the precautionary principle (Article 15). Under this Decreto Ejecutivo, precautionary measures must be issued exclusively by the Ministro de Ambiente Energía y Telecomunicaciones and must be supported by technical reports issued by Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación. Under this interpretation, he asserts, the provisions of this generally applicable regulation violate the precautionary principle because they cause undue delay in official administrative procedures by centralizing and concentrating in a single person the authority to issue precautionary measures for the benefit of the environment, while also requiring the public authorities to demonstrate through studies that harm has occurred or that there is a risk that it may occur, thereby reversing the burden of proof in environmental matters.
VIOLATION OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL PRINCIPLE OF NON-REGRESSION IN THE FIELD OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS. In Resolution No. 2010-14467 at 9:12 a.m. on August 1, 2010, Sala Constitucional referred to international treaties as a minimum standard of protection with respect to obligations established in the field of human rights. Likewise, Sala Constitucional’s case law on human rights gives rise to a general principle of progressive realization or non-regression (progresividad o no regresión), the scope of which allows States to expand the guarantees existing in their domestic legal systems in an “increasing” manner, while prohibiting them from weakening, disregarding, or subsequently restricting those guarantees through statutory or administrative provisions that are not supported by adequate technical grounds, in accordance with the constitutional principles of adherence to science and technology and the prohibition of arbitrariness.
In Resolution No. 18702-2010 at 3:27 p.m. on November 10, 2010, Sala Constitucional referred to the principle of progressive realization of fundamental rights, which is closely related to the precautionary principle and the right to a healthy environment. Paraphrasing what Sala stated in that judgment, he emphasizes that it is unreasonable to withdraw protection generally from property forming part of the public domain without even having data concerning the environmental conditions of the lands being occupied and subjected to those suspensive regulations, so as to ensure their timely and adequate protection. Thus, the principle of progressive realization of human rights in environmental matters operates as a negative barrier that prohibits States from issuing provisions that allow them temporarily to refrain from exercising their statutory and constitutional powers, that restrict or limit environmental protection or entail environmental backsliding or regression, or, as in this case, that excessively limit the powers of the public entities and bodies charged with providing timely protection.
With respect to the provisions of Ley No. 9073, there is an evident weakening of the duty to protect property forming part of the public domain, given that, without any technical support whatsoever, the State is temporarily prohibited from acting to protect this property immediately. VIOLATION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF THE INVIOLABILITY OF THE MARITIME-TERRESTRIAL ZONE (SECTIONS 6, 50, AND 121(14) OF THE CONSTITUCIÓN POLÍTICA). He asserts that, in Resolution No. 3113-2009 at 2:59 p.m. on February 25, 2009, Sala Constitucional derived the principle of the inviolability of the maritime-terrestrial zone (intangibilidad de la zona marítimo terrestre), under which such property may not be freely disposed of by the ordinary legislature but only in accordance with constitutional limits and pursuant to its powers and authority. In that regard, Tribunal Constitucional stated: “A) Violation of the principle of the inviolability of the maritime-terrestrial zone: under this principle, derived from the relationship among sections 6, 50, and 121(14) of the Constitución Política, the maritime-terrestrial zone—particularly the portion known as the public zone (zona pública)—may not be removed from the public domain, for several reasons.
First, because that zone has already been incorporated into and forms part of the State’s natural heritage (patrimonio natural del Estado). Second, because the use of that zone—particularly maritime beaches—is communal and is intended for the free use of all inhabitants without distinction, so that use by some does not prevent use by other interested persons. Third, because the public-domain framework (técnica demanial) is the most effective means of protecting maritime-terrestrial property and enabling the State to fulfill its duty to guarantee, defend, and preserve a healthy and ecologically balanced environment for all inhabitants of the country.
Regarding this latter aspect, the private use of maritime beaches certainly endangers the right to the environment, since those areas of the public domain (demanio público) could be subject to construction and other encroachments that would endanger coastal assets and their entire ecosystem. (…) By 1977, with the entry into force of the law governing the maritime-terrestrial zone (zona marítimo terrestre) and within the new constitutional framework, the maritime-terrestrial zone acquired the status and constitutional and legal protection of the public domain….” In that regard, he states, there is no basis whatsoever for establishing by law a period of “moratorium on the effectiveness of the prohibitory rules protecting this and other public-domain assets,” because, far from serving the general interest in environmental protection arising from Article 50 of the Constitución Política, the provisions of Ley No. 9073 amount to authorization for the authorities responsible for safeguarding the maritime-terrestrial zone (Municipalidades, Instituto Costarricense de Turismo, Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación, Ministerio de Ambiente, Energía y Telecomunicaciones, Procuraduría General de la República, Tribunal Ambiental Administrativo, Servicio Nacional de Riego y Avenamiento, among others) to suspend the exercise of their administrative self-enforcement powers (potestades de autotutela), particularly given the generalized, open, and indiscriminate manner in which those provisions were adopted.
Furthermore, although the suspension declared in Section One of Ley 9073 establishes an initial period of 2 years, nothing would guarantee that, through a new law or amendment, once that period has expired or even before then, the suspension of administrative self-enforcement powers over public-domain assets (bienes demaniales) would not be extended for a period longer than originally established, or that an attempt would not even be made to maintain that condition indefinitely. That possibility would result in imminent harm to the Nation because it would create a permanent situation of risk, uncertainty, and lack of protection for the assets comprising the public domain. Moreover, in accordance with the principle of the inviolability (intangibilidad) of the maritime-terrestrial zone and its nonprescriptible nature (naturaleza imprescriptible), it would not be lawful—as the challenged regulation seeks to do—to derive exclusive private rights (derechos privativos) over this type of asset, because this would cause direct harm to the community as a whole, which would be deprived of its benefits, particularly its free enjoyment, and harmed by an unlawful change in its designated use for private purposes, none of which reflects a clear policy of environmental land-use planning (ordenamiento ambiental del territorio) consistent with the principles of equality and legality.
VIOLATION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUALITY (ARTICLE 33 OF THE CONSTITUCIÓN POLÍTICA). On this point, he states that, although the State needs to establish public policies aimed at resolving the problems concerning the necessary relocation of the persons described in the explanatory statement for Bill 18440, this will not be achieved by suspending administrative self-enforcement powers over environmental assets that, by law and under the Constitution, belong to the Nation and, consequently, may and must be enjoyed by all Costa Ricans without distinction. It must again be noted that there are no specific studies determining the lawful status of the persons occupying the so-called “special zones.” In the absence of such assessments, it is clear that a blanket suspension has been established that will benefit both persons who may have a legitimate interest entitling them to obtain a right consistent with existing legislation and natural and legal persons who remain in unlawful situations and, because of that status, cause harm to the environmental conditions of these lands.
It bears noting that the principle of equality imposes a substantive limit on the legislature’s powers—which in this case are discretionary—and entails, on the one hand, comparable treatment with respect to compliance with the law (or before the law), but does not apply where the aim is to grant undue advantages to those seeking to benefit from situations that are contrary to the legal system. Accordingly, the fundamental right to equality constitutes a limit on the actions of public authorities. In this regard, the Sala Constitucional states: “The principle of equality is, above all, a limit on the actions of public authorities, as well as an instrument placed in the hands of individuals subject to government administration (administrados) to combat arbitrariness. That is, public authorities may create distinctions among persons, but those distinctions may not be the product of arbitrariness.” …
Constitutional-law doctrine holds that an examination of the rule may reveal either differential treatment based on objective and reasonable grounds or, conversely, discriminatory treatment because it is arbitrary. For unequal treatment to be permissible, the underlying factual circumstances must themselves be unequal. That is, the factual situations in which the subjects find themselves must be different, particularly because the principle of equality is violated when equals are treated unequally. (See, to that effect, among other decisions of this Chamber, Votos Nos. 00336-91, 00337-91, 00464-91 and 01209-91, in which it was stated: “Equality is infringed only if the unequal treatment lacks an objective and reasonable justification, and the existence of that justification must be assessed in relation to the purpose and effects of the measure under consideration; there must be a reasonable relationship of proportionality between the means employed and the objective pursued.”)…
Another basic condition is the purpose of the rule. Gratuitously different treatment is contrary to the principle of equality; that is, where it does not pursue a purpose that must be concrete rather than abstract.” (Sala Constitucional, Resolution 4027-2001 at 14:54 hours on May 16, 2001). Thus, the right to equality compels the State not only to refrain from applying discriminatory criteria to persons who are in the same legal situation, but also requires the Constituted Powers (Poderes Constituidos) to respect everyone’s right to enforcement of the express, public-order prohibitions established in the Constitución Política and the law, so as to guarantee the protection of the Nation’s assets for present and future generations without impairing the circumstances of the latter. Therefore, it must be affirmed that equality does not exist with respect to situations that are clearly contrary to the body of applicable law (bloque de juridicidad) and that, to that extent, cannot be protected by the legal system.
In this regard, it is clear that public-domain assets are subject to a series of prohibitions concerning their occupation and use by private parties, prohibitions that have applied equally and without distinction to all inhabitants. In that regard, he considers it not only unequal but also unreasonable to suspend the State’s powers relating to its constitutional duty to safeguard public-domain assets when, in any event, there are a series of express prohibitions preventing private parties from possessing public assets. To that extent, it is the law itself that determines under what conditions (of public interest) a concession, use permit, or lease may be authorized (or, conversely, denied), as well as the legal procedures and technical and legal requirements that must be satisfied to obtain a right over this type of asset—not through the suspension of the exercise of public powers ordered by the law now under challenge.
From its inception, Ley 6043 established the means by which lawful concessions would be granted over the restricted zone (zona restringida) of the maritime-terrestrial zone, but not over the public zone (zona pública), which—with certain exceptions contemplated in that same law—remains subject to a heightened protection regime incompatible with other uses (Article 20 of Ley 6043). Nevertheless, the challenged provisions draw no distinction whatsoever between the special protection regimes established for the two zones; on the contrary, they treat the suspension in both zones as equivalent, to the detriment of the environmental conditions inherent to these assets, which place them in a vulnerable position with respect to a range of indiscriminate private uses that may be incompatible with the environmental conditions characteristic of the ecosystems located in these territories. Under the rationale of Ley 9073, merely having entered these properties before its publication in the Diario Oficial would suffice for a person to register as a beneficiary of the ordered suspension and enjoy legal protection—in principle—for a period of 2 years.
This produces, we reiterate, a temporary, implicit repeal of the statutory and constitutional provisions establishing a special protection regime for these assets and preventing their indiscriminate occupation by private parties. In that regard, contrary to Article 33 of the Constitución Política, the suspension of protection for assets belonging to the Nation’s patrimony equally protects natural and legal persons whose unlawful status would preclude them from obtaining benefits of this kind, which are themselves questionable insofar as they do not apply equally to all Costa Ricans. INFRINGEMENT OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL POWERS OF THE PODER JUDICIAL AND THE CONTRALORÍA GENERAL DE LA REPÚBLICA (ARTICLES 153 and 183 OF THE CONSTITUCIÓN POLÍTICA). The law, he argues, encourages the continuation of unlawful situations by providing in Articles 2 and 3 that, during the moratorium period, judicial orders for eviction or demolition of works, activities, and projects in the referenced zones shall be suspended.
That provision contravenes the principle of effective judicial protection (tutela judicial efectiva) as regards the immediate enforcement of final judicial decisions; likewise, it exhibits constitutional defects contrary to the principles of separation of powers, the functional independence of the Poder Judicial, and effective judicial protection contained in Sections 9 and 153 of the Constitución Política. Similarly, the inability to enforce final judicial decisions contravenes the doctrine of substantive res judicata (cosa juzgada material) contained in Section 42 of the Carta Fundamental. Moreover, Ley 9073 places the enforcement of final administrative decisions at the discretion of the Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía, thereby violating Article 41 of the Constitución Política, which establishes the principle of prompt and full justice, without denial and in strict accordance with the laws, insofar as it prevents the enforcement of final decisions ordering eviction or demolition on public-domain lands.
Furthermore, Articles 2 and 3 of the Law restrict the possibility that other competent administrative authorities (except MINAE and the Environmental Administrative Tribunal (Tribunal Ambiental Administrativo)) may order precautionary measures (medidas cautelares) in administrative proceedings (sede administrativa), thereby establishing a form of centralization or absolute exclusivity over the exercise of interim protection (tutela cautelar). This undermines the necessary protection that must be afforded to public-domain property (bienes del demanio), with respect to which it is clear that other competent public institutions possess sector-specific powers, as well as the protection of a series of diffuse interests (intereses difusos) intended to broaden the scope of effective protection by all citizens, so that they may request enforcement of these decisions for the benefit of their right to a healthy environment.
It further asserts that such limitations violate Article 183 of the Political Constitution, because the Office of the Comptroller General of the Republic (Contraloría General de la República) was created as an auxiliary institution of the Legislative Assembly for oversight of the Public Treasury (Hacienda Pública), with absolute functional and administrative independence in the performance of its duties, for the purpose of protecting the rights, property, resources, and assets that constitute public funds, in accordance with the body of applicable law (bloque de juridicidad), as described in Section 2 of the Organic Law of the Office of the Comptroller General of the Republic (Ley Orgánica de la Contraloría General de la República): “In the exercise of its powers, the Office of the Comptroller General of the Republic enjoys absolute functional and administrative independence from any branch, entity, or body of government.
Its decisions are subject only to the Political Constitution, international treaties or conventions, and the law.” Accordingly, the provisions contained in Ley 9073 limit the independent exercise of the CGR’s powers insofar as they constitute an absolute statutory prohibition preventing the oversight body from providing direct, effective, and immediate protection for the environmental assets that comprise the National patrimony and form part of the Public Treasury, oversight of which was entrusted to this body by constitutional mandate. Thus, the principles of prompt and complete justice (justicia pronta y cumplida) and effective judicial protection (tutela judicial efectiva) are violated, insofar as the conduct and subsequent enforcement of judicial proceedings and administrative procedures, as well as compliance with binding directives issued by the Office of the Comptroller General of the Republic and other authorities competent to protect public-domain property, could ultimately be affected by the passage of the veinticuatro meses period specified in Ley 9073.
VIOLATION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF THE FORCE, AUTHORITY, AND EFFECTIVENESS OF THE LAW (ARTICLES 28 and 129 OF THE POLITICAL CONSTITUTION). As relevant here, it argues, Articles 28 and 129 of the Political Constitution provide: “ARTICLE 28.- No one may be disturbed or persecuted for expressing their opinions or for any act that does not violate the law. Private actions that do not harm public morals or public order, or injure third parties, are beyond the reach of the law.” “ARTICLE 129.- Laws are mandatory and take effect on the date designated therein; absent such a provision, diez días after their publication in the Official Gazette. No one may claim ignorance of the law, except in cases authorized by the law itself. A general waiver of laws, or a specific waiver of laws concerning the public interest, shall have no effect. Acts and agreements contrary to prohibitory laws shall be null and void unless those laws provide otherwise.
A law may be abrogated or repealed only by a subsequent law; disuse, custom, or contrary practice may not be invoked against its observance. The people may abrogate or repeal it by referendum, in accordance with Article 105 of this Constitution.” Reading these constitutional provisions in conjunction with the principle of legality (principio de legalidad) contained in Section 11 of the Fundamental Charter shows that the rules enacted by the legislature remain in force and are binding for all purposes, especially where the protection of environmental assets comprising the Nation’s patrimony is concerned. In this regard, the provisions of Ley 9073 depart from these constitutional principles insofar as they entail a discretionary suspension of the substantive effect of the powers granted by the Constitution and the Law to enforce a series of rules of general interest. Under those rules, exercising oversight and policing powers over public and private actions or omissions that affect the right to a healthy and ecologically balanced environment is established both as an obligation of the State (Article 50 of the Political Constitution) and as a prerogative of all Costa Ricans.
Thus, rather than merely suspending administrative or judicial actions intended to evict occupants and demolish structures located in special zones, the bill temporarily suspends the direct prohibitory effects of a series of fully effective public-order rules (which have not been expressly or impliedly repealed). Those rules directly prohibit private parties from encroaching upon, impairing, or appropriating public-domain property (bienes del dominio público), such as the maritime-terrestrial zone (zona marítimo terrestre), border zones (zonas fronterizas), and the State’s natural patrimony (patrimonio natural del Estado). Accordingly, it objects, the protective regime governing these territories is established in various special laws. In this regard, reference may be made to Decisions 4587 of 15:45 hours on 5 de agosto de 1997 and 16629-2012 of 16:31 hours on 28 de noviembre de 2012, both issued by the Constitutional Chamber (Sala Constitucional).
In its Decision 3430-2013 of 14:30 hours on 13 de marzo de 2013, the Constitutional Chamber ruled on an amparo proceeding (recurso de amparo) filed in connection with the eviction and demolition of a structure located in the maritime-terrestrial zone of the Cantón de Osa. On that occasion, despite the continued validity of the Law for the Protection of Occupants of Zones Classified as Special (Ley de Protección de los Ocupantes de Zonas Calificadas como Especiales) (now challenged), the Constitutional Court reiterated in every respect the protective characteristics inherent to property forming part of the public domain, as well as the powers of the Administrative authorities to enforce their duties to protect such property. Accordingly, such property has been described as inalienable, not subject to acquisitive prescription, and immune from attachment; it may not be mortgaged or subjected to any encumbrance because it is outside private commerce and, consequently, cannot be possessed.
A right to use it may therefore be acquired, but not an ownership right over it. It notes that this same Court has stated in its extensive case law on the subject that the national regime governing public-domain property, such as the maritime-terrestrial zone, places such property outside private commerce and that, consequently, any permits granted will always be precarious and may be revoked unilaterally by the Administration when required by necessity or the general interest. It has also been held that, in the case of de facto occupants of public-domain property, as in this case, no judicial or administrative process or procedure need be observed, because the Administration’s direct action (interdictum propium) replaces possessory proceedings before the courts, and the procedure prescribed for administrative evictions need not be followed. It therefore follows that the respondent municipal corporation is empowered, on its own initiative, to evict occupants of public-domain property located within the “Maritime-Terrestrial Zone” and to demolish the structures located there, as occurred in this particular case.” Accordingly, it argues that the challenged Law clearly does not in any way affect the public-domain nature (naturaleza demanial) of these territories, nor does it repeal the statutory rules and constitutional principles protecting the public domain as environmental property.
Nevertheless, it states, the Law does allow situations contrary to the public interest to persist and authorizes an indeterminate number of persons to initiate or continue their unlawful status, which may even give rise to administrative, civil, and criminal liability. This results in a violation of the principles of legality, continued validity, binding force, force, effectiveness, and authority of the law, pursuant to Articles 11, 28, 33, and 129 of the Political Constitution. In conclusion, it is mindful of the social and economic problems underlying many of the situations that originally prompted the enactment of Ley 9073; the significance of these issues in national life; and the need to seek technically and legally viable alternatives for addressing the social problems caused by decades of exclusive private use of public spaces. Nevertheless, it considers that, alongside the development of possible solutions, compliance with the foundational legal framework protecting the property comprising the public patrimony is essential, as is the promotion of permanent land-use planning measures (ordenamiento territorial) that comply with the body of national and international law governing the matter, so that the proposed objectives may be achieved.
In this case, we are confronted with legislation devoid of technical content, temporary in nature, parallel, alternative, and even contradictory to the rules currently in force. Far from benefiting the protection and proper planning of these territories, it encourages disorderly development by treating Costa Ricans who have complied with existing statutory prohibitions unequally, causing equal or greater legal uncertainty among legal practitioners and the current occupants of those zones, while increasing instances of disregard and progressive nonapplication of the regulations that have long governed the effective protection of public-domain property as part of the patrimony of present and future generations. In other words, it considers that the starting point for validating a legal solution such as the one now being pursued (through a series of parallel bills) unquestionably requires first respecting the preexisting legal provisions, in order to reach a solution consistent with the purposes pursued by the rule of law and with the current framework of legality, constitutionality, and compliance with international conventions.
Now, the provisions of Ley 9073, it states, are unconstitutional insofar as they disregard rules and principles at both the national and international levels and create a series of unequal, contradictory, temporary, and parallel regulations that depart substantially from the scope of the existing legal framework, in contravention of the principle of legality (principio de legalidad), and that impair the protection of a series of assets that are essential and strategic to national development because they form part of the Public Treasury (Hacienda Pública) and are vitally important to Costa Rica’s progress (Articles 50, 69, 89, 121 subsection 14), and 183 of the Constitution). In this regard, the oversight body considers that the solution cannot be achieved through the systematic legalization of irregular situations by creating special rules intended to benefit sectors—implicitly, generally, and indiscriminately—through the blanket acceptance of irregular situations, regarding which, moreover, no reliable data are available on the number of occupants or the extent of the direct and indirect consequences for the environment.
Comprehensive and permanent solutions must therefore be proposed that take into account the provisions of the Costa Rican legal system, at both the national and international levels, as well as the various alternatives for achieving a sound balance in national development, while ensuring the proper safeguarding and protection of the assets comprising the public domain (dominio público), which form part of the Public Treasury. On this basis, Ley 9073 is deemed unconstitutional in its entirety.
Justice Hernández López drafted the opinion; and,
WHEREAS:
I.ADMISSIBILITY.- Pursuant to Article 75, second paragraph, of the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional, a prior case pending resolution shall not be necessary when, by the nature of the matter, there is no individual and direct injury, or when the proceeding concerns the defense of diffuse interests (intereses difusos) affecting the community as a whole. In this regard, this Constitutional Court, in Voto No. 8239-01 issued at 16:07 on 14 de agosto de 2001, referred to diffuse interests in the following terms: “(…) Under the first of the circumstances provided for in paragraph 2° of Article 75 of the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional, the challenged provision must not be susceptible to concrete application that would subsequently permit a challenge to the implementing act and its consequent use as the underlying case. (...) Second, the possibility of bringing an action in defense of diffuse interests is provided for (...) Although difficult to define and even more difficult to identify, diffuse interests cannot, under our law—as this Chamber has already stated—be merely collective interests; nor may they be so diffuse that their ownership becomes indistinguishable from that of the national community as a whole, or so specific that particular persons or identifiable groups are identified or readily identifiable with respect to them, whose standing (legitimación) would arise not from diffuse interests but from the corporate interests affecting a community as a whole.
They are therefore individual interests that are, at the same time, dispersed among more or less extensive and amorphous groups of persons who share an interest and consequently suffer actual or potential harm that is more or less equal for all. It is therefore correctly stated that these are equal interests belonging both to the groups situated in particular circumstances and, at the same time, to each of their members. In other words, diffuse interests have a dual nature, since they are both collective—because they are common to a broad class—and individual, and may therefore be asserted as such. (...) In summary, diffuse interests are those held by groups of persons who are not formally organized but are united by a particular social need, a physical characteristic, their ethnic origin, a particular personal or ideological orientation, their consumption of a certain product, etc. (…)”.
In the present matter, the petitioning party contends that its standing arises through abstract constitutional review (control de constitucionalidad abstracto) and invokes the defense of diffuse interests, since it is acting to protect the right to information. Consequently, these circumstances confer upon the petitioning party direct standing to institute these proceedings, because it invokes the defense of interests affecting the national community as a whole. Accordingly, this constitutional challenge (acción de inconstitucionalidad) is admissible for examination and determination through abstract review.
As shown by the filing initiating the action before us, the Asociación Sindical de Trabajadores del Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía initially challenges the constitutionality of Articles 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 of the Ley de Protección a los Ocupantes de Zonas clasificadas como Especiales (Ley No. 9073 of 19 de septiembre de 2012), and subsequently requests that all the provisions of that Law be declared unconstitutional, invoking for that purpose the existence of a diffuse interest grounded in the violation of the fundamental rights recognized—among many others—in Article 50 of the Constitución Política. Specifically, the petitioning party alleges an infringement of the right of all Costa Ricans to enjoy a healthy and ecologically balanced environment, because application of the aforementioned Law violates the legal system by suspending—for a period of 2 years—the application of the rules that restrictively regulate the special protection regime (régimen especial de protección) applicable to the maritime-terrestrial zone (zona marítima terrestre), the Patrimonio Natural del Estado and border zones (zonas fronterizas), in view of their status as public-domain property (bienes integrantes de dominio público) and their paramount environmental importance.
The challenged provisions state verbatim as follows:
“(…) LEY DE PROTECCIÓN A LOS OCUPANTES DE ZONAS CLASIFICADAS COMO ESPECIALES ARTICLE 1.- For a period of veinticuatro meses, the eviction (desalojo) of persons, demolition of structures, and suspension of activities and projects in the maritime-terrestrial zone, border zone and Patrimonio Natural del Estado shall be stayed.
ARTICLE 2.- The provision set forth in the preceding Article does not preclude the ordering of judicial or administrative interim measures (medidas cautelares), or the enforcement of final judicial or administrative decisions, in either case when environmental damage or a danger or threat of damage to the environment has been determined.
The administrative decisions referred to in the preceding paragraph shall be exclusively those issued by the Tribunal Administrativo Ambiental or by the ministro de Ambiente y Energía.
ARTICLE 3.- In areas declared part of the Patrimonio Natural del Estado, only the ministro de Ambiente y Energía may decline to apply the moratorium, based on the relevant technical grounds, when environmental damage or a danger or threat of damage to the environment has been determined.
ARTICLE 4.- Under no circumstances shall the application of this Law result in the creation of rights in favor of precarious occupants (ocupantes a título precario) of the areas subject to the moratorium. Likewise, precarious occupants may not modify the structures, activities or projects located in the areas subject to this moratorium, except for modifications necessary to comply with a health order issued by the competent authority.
ARTICLE 5.- During the term of the moratorium, the State shall not permit new occupation of the areas referred to in Article 1 of this Law.
ARTICLE 6.- Municipalities are authorized, within the areas under their jurisdiction, to apply the moratorium under the terms established in this Law, following a reasoned resolution by the respective concejo municipal.
ARTICLE 7.- During the term of this moratorium, the State shall take the measures necessary for the planning (ordenamiento) of the areas referred to in this Law.
Effective as of its publication.
Issued at the Presidencia de la República, San José, on diecinueve días del mes de setiembre del año dos mil doce.”
The petitioning party alleges that the challenged provisions violate: the principle of effective protection of public-domain property (bienes demaniales) and the State’s power of recovery (potestad reivindicatoria); the precautionary principle and in dubio pro natura; the principle of non-regression of substantive protections; the principle prohibiting arbitrariness; the principles of equality, reasonableness and proportionality; the right to seek a healthy and ecologically balanced environment; the principle of non-regression in matters of fundamental rights; and the principle of inviolability of the maritime-terrestrial zone.
PROPERTY SUBJECT TO THE PUBLIC-DOMAIN REGIME. Article 1 of the challenged provisions establishes a moratorium of 2 years during which the eviction of persons, demolition of structures, and suspension of activities and projects in the maritime-terrestrial zone, the border zone and the Patrimonio Natural de Estado are stayed. Under the legislation governing the subject, the areas identified therein are subject to the public-domain regime (régimen de dominio público). This Chamber has understood the public domain (dominio público) as the body of property subject to a special legal regime distinct from that governing private ownership and which, in addition to belonging to or being administered by public legal entities, is dedicated or allocated to public-use purposes, as reflected in the direct or indirect use that any person may make of it. Legal scholarship has referred to the public domain by various terms, including dominical property (bienes dominicales), public things (cosas públicas), public property (bienes públicos) and public-domain property. For these purposes, it is helpful in this regard to revisit this Constitutional Court’s analysis concerning public-domain property in Voto No. 02988-99 issued at 11:57 on 23 de abril de 2014, which states verbatim:
“(…)
III.Preliminary considerations. Before examining the merits of the action, it is necessary to make several observations regarding the protected areas (zonas protegidas) that the provision under review seeks to grant title to: the border strip, forest reserves, national wildlife refuges, and protected zones. Our legislation establishes a system in which dedication to public use (afectación) becomes the primary element for including property within the public domain (dominio público); therefore, any property designated by law—or by an administrative act when authorized by law—shall belong to the public domain. When property is incorporated into the public-domain regime, it acquires a series of essential characteristics, including inalienability (inalienabilidad), immunity from acquisition by prescription (imprescriptibilidad), and immunity from attachment (inembargabilidad). Because of these characteristics, such property cannot be expropriated, since expropriation would entail its transfer and it is inalienable.
Likewise, acquisitive prescription (usucapión) is not a means of acquiring it: inalienable things, being outside private commerce, cannot be possessed by private parties and are therefore immune from acquisition by prescription so long as they retain that status or remain dedicated to the public use to which they were assigned. “The public domain consists of property that, by the express will of the legislature, is specially intended to serve the community and the public interest. These are known as public-domain assets (bienes dominicales), public property (bienes denominiales), public assets or things, which do not belong individually to private parties, are intended for public use, and are subject to a special regime outside private commerce. That is, they are dedicated by their very nature and purpose. Consequently, this property belongs to the State in the broadest sense of the term; it is dedicated to the service it provides, which is invariably essential pursuant to an express rule.
Its characteristic features are that it is inalienable, immune from acquisition by prescription, and immune from attachment; it cannot be mortgaged or encumbered under the terms of Civil Law, and administrative action replaces possessory proceedings (interdictos) for recovering title. Because this property is outside private commerce, it cannot be the object of possession, although a right of use may be acquired, but not a property right.” (Sala Constitucional, judgment No. 2306-91 of fourteen hours and forty-five minutes on 6 de noviembre de 1991).
The establishment of protected areas under the categories of Forest Reserve, Private or Mixed Wildlife Refuge, National Park, Biological Reserve, and Protected Zone entails the imposition of a public ownership regime (Régimen de propiedad Pública) under the category of State Forest Heritage (Patrimonio Forestal del Estado), which ipso facto changes the legal nature of the lands included within the area, namely, from a private regime manifested through various forms or statuses of tenure to a public regime of State ownership. Article 13 of Ley Forestal No.7575 establishes that the State’s natural heritage (patrimonio natural del Estado) shall consist of the forests and forest lands of national reserves, areas declared inalienable, properties registered in its name, and those belonging to municipalities, autonomous institutions, and other Public Administration bodies, except for real property securing credit transactions with the national Banking System that becomes part of its assets. Similarly, Article 14 of the same Law provides that the forest lands and forests constituting the State’s natural heritage are immune from attachment and inalienable; that their possession by private parties shall create no rights in their favor; and that the State’s action to recover title (acción reivindicatoria) to such lands is not subject to prescription.
As regards forest reserves, there is a great need to protect timber species, not only because of their inherent economic value, but also because some of them have great scientific value. These plant species form part of renewable natural resources, but will cease to be renewable as they become extinct.
Regarding the border strip, the Ley de Terrenos Baldíos, No. 13 de 10 de enero de 1939, provided in Article 10: “The lands located within a strip two kilometers wide along the borders with Nicaragua and Panamá are likewise inalienable.” This protection arose because our border areas continue to be considered indispensable to the country, not only for reasons of defending national sovereignty, given the importance of preserving them as strategic areas for the Nation’s security, but also because of their significance for protecting the State’s natural heritage. Because of their location and coverage, border areas constitute an extremely important territory for environmental protection: an indispensable buffer zone (zona de amortiguamiento) for the movement of flora and fauna, water resources, and the ecosystem prevailing in particular regions of the country. Hence the Costa Rican State’s interest in and need to regulate and protect the natural resources that exist today and that, without control and restrictions on their disposition by the competent authorities, would place the right to a healthy environment in serious jeopardy.
For this reason, these areas are intended to be protected through both national and international legal instruments, as in the case of the Central American commission at the regional level, which, in addition to the constituent agreement and the protocol, signed the Central American biodiversity agreement with Nicaragua in 1992 for the purpose of gradually establishing a Central American biological corridor, and the Consejo Centroamericano de Bosques, created in Guatemala, which seeks to undertake joint actions establishing coordination measures concerning the resources available in our country’s northern border area and the other borders of the Central American countries. By virtue of Decreto No. 22692-MIRENEM del 15 de febrero de 1994, amended by Decreto No.23248-MIRENEM del 20 de abril del mismo año, Article 1 declared the border corridor formed by the lands within a strip 2000 meters wide along the border with Nicaragua to be a National Wildlife Refuge.
That declaration was based on the fact that the area is an important biological corridor between the Area de Conservación Tortuguero, the Humedales de Tamborcito y Marenque, the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Caño Negro, and the Reserva Forestal El Jardín.
Similarly, wildlife refuges are defined in Article 35, subsection ch), of Ley Forestal No.7032 del 7 de abril de 1986 as “those forests and lands whose primary use is the protection, conservation, enhancement, and management of wild flora and fauna species.” The primary purpose of these sites is to protect endangered flora and fauna species that possess, among other values, great scientific value, hence the interest in conserving them. Their conservation is intended to ensure the perpetuity of wildlife species, their populations, and their habitats, and to provide opportunities for scientific, educational, and recreational activities when these do not undermine the objectives of each refuge. Within National Wildlife Refuges, the biota may vary greatly depending on the diversity of natural associations existing within the refuge and the variety of local geographical conditions. This entails recognizing the differences arising from diverse geological, edaphic, and topographical conditions and from animal and human activity; hence the need for legal protection of these areas and of the other components of forest agricultural property (propiedad agraria forestal).
In our country, as already noted, the interest in protecting forest resources dates back many years. For example, decreto No. 5 del 26 de junio de 1945 demonstrates this trend toward protecting forest lands and the forest resources derived from them, not only because of the value of the resources themselves, but also because of the function they perform within what, in this case, are protected zones. The State has an interest in acquiring lands for forest protection in order to determine whether, because of their scenic, cultural, scientific, or protective characteristics, they constitute property that should be preserved as land of incalculable value. Based on this assessment, the State creates so-called protected zones, which consist of forested areas or lands suitable for forestry where the conservation of forests and forest lands is motivated by the purposes of protecting soils or maintaining and regulating the hydrological regime, climate, and environment.
They are suitable for soil protection because tree roots secure and retain the topsoil, while fallen leaves cover the ground over which water flows and prevent soil particles from being washed away; that is, they halt or at least reduce erosion, which causes a nutritional imbalance in the soil by carrying away important nutrients needed for plant growth. Protected zones play a predominant role in maintaining environmental balance, with the environment understood as the set of things surrounding the individual, such as climate, soil, light, wind, rain, food, cold, heat, habitat, and so forth, and in maintaining ecosystem balance through the exchange relationship between the living and nonliving components of nature. Hence the need to protect the soil, regulate the hydrological regime, conserve the environment, and preserve watersheds (cuencas hidrográficas). These zones are created by law or by decree of the Executive Branch, and, also by statutory provision, agricultural work and the destruction of vegetation are prohibited within them.
Protected areas include lands located in national reserves, a specified area along rivers, a strip on either side of the lowest depression of hydrological basins, lands surrounding springs (manantiales) that originate in the hills as well as those that originate on level ground, and a specified area along the banks of rivers, streams, lakes, lagoons, or natural reservoirs (…).
With respect to the matter at issue here—namely, the protection of environmental rights—this Chamber stated in the aforementioned decision number 3705-93:
“It is important for the Chamber, before addressing the strictly substantive considerations, to undertake a general analysis establishing the constitutional framework and the conditions and interests currently surrounding environmental conservation, since the study thereof is a development of this past century. It is essential to recall that, for many centuries, humankind believed that it should dominate the forces of nature and place them at its service, because natural resources were considered, to some extent, inexhaustible and industrialization was regarded as a desirable objective per se, without assessing the impact that economic activity would have on the environment. Indeed, the distinction between renewable and nonrenewable natural resources is modern, since even economics—which concerns itself with managing the surroundings so as to satisfy human needs to the greatest extent possible using limited resources—did not incorporate depletion and environmental deterioration as tools of economic analysis until very recently...
The environment, therefore, must be understood as a development resource to be used appropriately, requiring integrated action with respect to its natural, sociocultural, technological, and political relationships; otherwise, its productivity for the present and future is degraded, and the heritage of future generations could be placed at risk. The origins of environmental problems are complex and correspond to an interaction between natural and social processes within the framework of the socioeconomic development model adopted by the country. For example, environmental problems arise when methods of exploiting natural resources cause ecosystem degradation beyond their regenerative capacity, resulting in harm to broad sectors of the population and generating high environmental and social costs that lead to a deterioration in quality of life; indeed, the primary objective of using and protecting the environment is precisely to achieve development and evolution favorable to human beings.
Environmental quality is a fundamental parameter of that quality of life; other no less important parameters include health, food, employment, housing, education, etc. More important, however, is understanding that although humankind has the right to use the environment for its own development, it also has a duty to protect and preserve it for present and future generations. This is not particularly novel, because it is merely the application to this subject matter of the principle of ‘injury’ (lesión), already established in general law, under which the legitimate exercise of a right has two essential limits: on the one hand, the equal rights of others and, on the other, the rational exercise and beneficial enjoyment of the right itself...”
III.This Chamber has also recognized that both the right to health and the right to an environment free from pollution, without which the former could not be made effective, are fundamental rights. Accordingly, the State is obligated to provide for their protection, either through general policies intended to achieve that purpose or through specific actions by the Administration. Sustainable development (desarrollo sostenible) is one of those general policies established by the State to expand the opportunities for everyone to fulfill their aspirations for a better life, by increasing productive capacity or broadening the possibilities for achieving equitable progress between population growth and natural systems. Sustainable development is the process of transformation in the use of resources, the direction of investments, the channeling of technological development, institutional changes, and everything else that contributes to meeting present and future human needs (…).”
Accordingly, this Constitutional Court has established in its judgments illustrative lists of assets subject to the public domain (bienes afectos al demanio público), including, notably, the lands deemed by Ley No. 9073 to be “areas classified as special.” In this regard, sentencia No. 2063-2007 of 14:40 hours on 14 de febrero de 2007 provides as follows: “(…) This category thus includes—without constituting an exhaustive list—the maritime-terrestrial zone, the State’s forest or natural heritage—protected areas (áreas protegidas)—(comprising national parks, forest reserves, biological reserves, protective zones, wildlife refuges, wetlands, and natural monuments—artículo 32 of Ley Orgánica del Ambiente, número 7554, of dieciocho de setiembre de mil novecientos noventa y cinco—), watershed protection zones (zonas de protección hidrográfica)—artículo 33 of Ley Forestal—(adjacent to springs, riverbanks, and lakes), border zones (artículo 10 of Ley de Terrenos Baldíos, número 13, of diez de enero de mil novecientos treinta y nueve), rights-of-way, railway lines, indigenous reserves, historical and architectural heritage, mineral resources, archaeological heritage, etc. These are assets which, by virtue of their purpose and intended use, are outside the stream of commerce and are therefore inalienable, not subject to prescription, and not subject to attachment; consequently, neither ownership nor possession thereof is possible, whether gratuitously or for consideration.
They cannot be lost through prescription or acquired through adverse possession (usucapión), and therefore permanently retain their legal status; nor may they be attached. Furthermore, they are subject to the police power (poder de policía) with respect to their exploitation and use, as such exploitation and use are conditional upon the granting of the corresponding licenses and permits and upon oversight and supervision by the Administration.” Furthermore, at the doctrinal, statutory, and jurisprudential levels, public-domain assets (bienes de dominio público) are understood to be those allocated to public use or a public service and, accordingly, enjoy a protective regime with special characteristics—not subject to prescription, not subject to attachment, and inalienable—see, in this regard, oficio of 25 de febrero del 2003, DAGJ-219-2003, of the Contraloría General de la República. Thus, regarding public-domain assets, it states that: “The public domain is an intervention mechanism through which certain publicly owned assets, likewise specified by the Constitution or statutes, are dedicated to a particular public purpose prescribed by law—whether public use or public service, the promotion of national wealth, or the protection and assurance of the rational exploitation of natural resources—and are made subject to an Administrative Law regime governing their protection and use.
Consequently, three elements comprise the legal relationship of the public domain. The first is public ownership of the assets, which the LPE (art.1) seeks to define as property. This legal characterization, however, is of little importance, because in any event it concerns ownership of a sui generis nature. The second is the dedication (afectación) of the assets comprising the public domain to a public-interest purpose prescribed by law. As generally acknowledged by legal scholarship, this is the decisive element. The third, as a consequence of the preceding elements, is the application of a special administrative regime governing the protection and use of the assets.” The jurisprudence of the Tribunal de lo Contencioso Administrativo has taken a similar approach and, also following the jurisprudential line articulated by this Chamber, has stated that these assets enjoy a special protective regime because, by law, they are assigned to a public-interest purpose and are therefore not susceptible to private appropriation.
That Tribunal has accordingly stated: “... it is a public-domain asset and, therefore, is not subject to private appropriation. According to Biondo Biondi, ‘... public-domain assets (bienes demaniales) are those assets declared as such by law and placed in a particular legal status ...’ (…) and ‘... the constant and permanent characteristic of public-domain assets is that they belong to the State or to a territorial entity (towns, provinces) ... Belonging must be understood in the broad sense of title or general attribution, also because rights form part of the public domain. It is certainly an eminent, exclusive, and absolute right and, in that respect, comparable to a right in rem...’ (…).” In relation to this same subject, Sala Constitucional, in sentencia No. 5976-93 of 15:42 hours on 16 de noviembre de 1993, referring to the fact that regulation of public-domain property is grounded in subsection 14) of artículo 121 of the Carta Magna, held: “(…) The public domain consists of assets which, by the legislature’s express intent, have the special purpose of serving the community and the public interest.
They are known as State-domain assets (bienes dominicales), public-domain assets, or public property or things; they do not belong individually to private parties, are intended for public use, and are subject to a special regime outside the stream of commerce. In other words, they are dedicated by virtue of their nature and purpose. Consequently, these assets belong to the State in the broadest sense of the term, are dedicated to the service they provide, and that service is invariably essential by express legal provision. The defining characteristics of these assets are that they are inalienable, not subject to prescription, and not subject to attachment; they cannot be mortgaged or encumbered under Civil Law, and administrative action takes the place of possessory proceedings (interdictos) for recovering control. Because they are outside the stream of commerce, these assets cannot be possessed, although a right of use may be acquired, but not an ownership right.
A use permit (permiso de uso) is a unilateral legal act issued by the Administration in the exercise of its functions, and what is placed in the hands of a private party is the beneficial interest in the asset, while the State always retains direct ownership of the thing. The precarious nature of every right or use permit is inherent in the legal concept and refers to the Administration’s ability to revoke it at any time, whether because of the State’s need to occupy the asset fully, the construction of a public work, or reasons of safety, hygiene, or aesthetics. To the extent that a conflict arises between the purpose of the asset and the permit granted, the natural use of the public property must prevail. Consequently, the national regime governing public-domain assets (...) places them outside the stream of commerce, and therefore any permits granted shall always be precarious and may be revoked unilaterally by the Administration when reasons of necessity or the general interest so require (…).” Based on the grounds and reasoning set forth in this recital (considerando), the constitutionality of the cited provisions will now be analyzed.
THE PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE PROTECTION OF PUBLIC-DOMAIN PROPERTY (BIENES DEMANIALES) AND THE STATE’S POWER OF RECOVERY (POTESTAD REIVINDICATORIA). THE TWO-YEAR MORATORIUM. As recorded in the first Background section (resultando) of these proceedings, as well as in the preceding recitals (considerandos), the petitioner challenged as unreasonable the 2-year moratorium suspending evictions, demolition of structures, and suspension of activities and projects in the aforementioned zones, which Ley 9073 classifies as special zones. Accordingly, because the subject matter of the challenged Law concerns public-domain property (bienes de dominio público), the principle of administrative self-enforcement (autotutela administrativa) would apply to such property, under which the competent state authorities may act to defend public-domain property, whose protection derives from the regulations in force.
It should also be noted that, through decision No. 10578-2007, issued at 16:40 on 25 de julio de 2007, this Constitutional Chamber stated as follows: “Certainly, human beings have the right to use the environment for their own development, but they also have the corresponding duty to protect and preserve it for the use of present and future generations. (…) ‘Human beings have the fundamental right to freedom, equality, and the enjoyment of adequate living conditions in an environment of such quality as to permit a life of dignity and well-being, and they bear the solemn obligation to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations.’” In accordance with Article 50 of the Constitution, the State assumes a mandate to protect environmental balance. However, the text of Article One of the challenged Law provides: “ARTICLE 1.- For a period of veinticuatro meses, the eviction of persons, demolition of structures, and suspension of activities and projects in the maritime-terrestrial zone (zona marítimo-terrestre), border zone (zona fronteriza), and Natural Heritage of the State (patrimonio natural del Estado) shall be suspended.” The quoted statutory text establishes the possibility of temporarily suspending the exercise of self-enforcement powers for the immediate protection of State property.
Thus, in this Court’s view, the petitioner and the respective supporting parties (coadyuvantes) are correct in maintaining that the suspension of evictions and demolition of structures—actions arising from the principle of administrative self-enforcement that characterizes public-domain property and that are necessary to maintain its integrity—undermines the practical application of that principle and places such property at serious risk. Furthermore, regarding the violation of the principle that public-domain property is not subject to prescription (imprescriptibilidad), such a violation could occur indirectly because, although Ley No. 9073 does not permit the appropriation of public-domain property for purposes of acquisitive prescription (prescripción positiva) and acquisition of ownership by private parties, the suspension of any eviction or demolition involving such property would ultimately frustrate any State recovery action (acción reivindicatoria) intended to recover improperly appropriated property.
Indeed, if the ultimate intended effect of every recovery action—namely, the effective restoration to the owner of improperly appropriated property—is not permitted, the action itself is rendered ineffective. In this regard, the evident importance of the public-domain property that could be affected creates a condition of noncompliance insofar as it temporarily allows situations of irregular occupation to continue and potentially even increase in protected wilderness areas (áreas silvestres protegidas), forest reserves (reservas forestales), biological reserves (reservas biológicas), national reserves (reservas nacionales), forests, national parks, wildlife refuges (refugios de vida silvestre), land suitable for forestry (terrenos de aptitud forestal), watersheds (cuencas hidrográficas), wetlands, mangroves, estuaries, islands, national monuments, protection areas (áreas de protección), border areas, biological diversity, the Natural Heritage of the State, and the maritime-terrestrial zone, among others, whose protection, because of their ecological importance and aesthetic value, is guaranteed under human rights law.
Thus, under the established moratorium, all such property and resources, although by definition inalienable, not subject to prescription, and not subject to attachment (inembargables), are placed at widespread risk as a result of the temporary suspension of the State’s powers to act for their immediate protection through the prerogatives afforded by the exercise of public powers, in defense of the general interest and the common good. Consequently, the State is prevented from exercising its principal self-enforcement powers for the timely and effective protection of the so-called special zones, thereby contravening the applicable statutory, constitutional, and supranational rules. For the foregoing reasons, the action is granted as to this claim, and Article One of Ley 9073 is declared unconstitutional.
THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE AND IN DUBIO PRO NATURA. The provision is challenged because of the absence of technical criteria supporting it and guaranteeing that the environment will not be adversely affected in the areas it designates as “special zones,” on the grounds that it violates the precautionary principle by broadly withdrawing protection from public-domain property. This principle arose against the backdrop of uncertainty regarding the consequences that human activity may have for the environment (whether positive or negative); accordingly, its purpose is to restrict any modification or alteration of the environment. Thus, even where there is no actual evidence of a benefit or harm to the environment, the so-called rebuttable presumption applies, under which doubt must always be resolved in favor of the environment. Consequently, until there is certainty of a benefit or the absence of harm, the legally protected interest (bien jurídico) known as the environment carries greater weight than scientific uncertainty; therefore, actual and tangible harm need not exist, but only the possibility that it may occur—that is, the risk arises if precautionary measures are not adopted.
Hence, this principle emerged as a consequence of rejecting relentless human activity undertaken without measuring its consequences, which could irreparably affect the environment or human health itself. The protection afforded by this rule marks the beginning of an era of environmental protection in which, instead of addressing environmental problems after they have arisen, the aim is to anticipate harm and thereby protect human health and the environment. The Rio Declaration, adopted by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in June 1992, enshrined the Precautionary Principle in the following terms: “Principle 15: In order to protect the environment, States shall widely apply the precautionary approach according to their capabilities. Where there is a threat of serious and irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.” On the other hand, Article 174, paragraph two, of the Treaty on European Union provides that: “Community policy on the environment shall aim at a high level of protection, taking into account the diversity of situations in the various regions of the Community.
It shall be based on the precautionary principle and on the principles that preventive action should be taken, that environmental damage should as a priority be rectified at source, and that the polluter should pay.” For this reason, the precautionary principle distinguishes environmental law from the other traditional legal disciplines and constitutes, in our judgment, a structural, foundational, or central principle of the very recent field of environmental law. The precautionary principle has also been extensively analyzed by this Court, as reflected in Voto No. 5893-95, which states verbatim: “Likewise, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development established, among other matters, the sovereign right of States to define their development policies. It also sets forth the precautionary principle (Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration), according to which ‘in order to protect the environment, States shall widely apply the precautionary approach according to their capabilities.
Where there is a threat of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.’ Thus, the protection of our natural resources requires a preventive approach; that is, if degradation and deterioration are to be minimized, precaution and prevention must be the governing principles. This leads us to the need to articulate the principle of ‘in dubio pro natura,’ which may be drawn by analogy from other branches of law and is wholly consistent with nature. Nevertheless, the task of protecting the environment is made more difficult because we carry with us a rigid conception of property rights that prevents progress in favor of the environment, without which the rights to life, work, property, or health could not exist. It must not be overlooked that we are in an area of law in which the most important rules are those capable of preventing all forms of environmental harm, because no rule can subsequently repair harm that has already occurred; this need for prevention is even more urgent in developing countries.
In this regard, the Stockholm Declaration stated ‘...that in developing countries most environmental problems are caused by underdevelopment itself. Millions continue to live below minimum standards of health and sanitation. Therefore, developing countries must direct all their efforts toward development, bearing in mind their priorities and the need to safeguard and improve the environment. For the same reason, industrialized countries should make efforts to reduce the gap between themselves and developing countries.’” Article two of the challenged legislation states: “ARTICLE 2.- The provision set forth in the preceding article does not preclude the issuance of judicial or administrative interim measures (medidas cautelares), or the enforcement of final judicial or administrative decisions, in both cases when the occurrence of environmental harm or a danger or threat of harm to the environment has been established.
The administrative decisions referred to in the preceding paragraph shall be exclusively those issued by the Environmental Administrative Court or by the Minister of Environment and Energy.” This presents two possible violations of the precautionary principle. First, because one of the grounds for imposing interim measures and enforcing decisions is the occurrence of environmental harm, meaning that action is taken only after the adverse environmental effect has already occurred, which is precisely what the precautionary principle seeks to prevent; and second, because the provision does not appear to include the possibility of taking action where there is uncertainty concerning a danger or threat to the environment, but instead appears to assume that such danger or threat must be certain or proven. It should also be added that, under the second paragraph of Article 2 of Ley No. 9073, the only administrative decisions that may be enforced are those issued by the Tribunal Ambiental Administrativo or the Ministro de Ambiente y Energía, thereby excluding other bodies and entities that also have jurisdiction in this area, such as the Ministerio de Salud, the various Áreas de Conservación of the Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación, the municipalities, and others, thus reducing the possibilities for preventive action.
In addition to the foregoing considerations, the question arises as to how the harm—or the danger or threat thereof—is to be determined, given the vast amount of territory that must be covered (border areas, the maritime-terrestrial zone (zona marítimo terrestre), protected wilderness areas (áreas silvestres protegidas), forests, and forest lands belonging to the Patrimonio Natural del Estado throughout the country) and the scarcity of resources currently available that would have to be allocated to carrying out such a task. Consistent with the foregoing, it would not be surprising if the threat of environmental harm were to materialize before the administrative measure intended to prevent it could be issued. Therefore, although the fifth section of Ley 9073 provides that “During the term of the moratorium, the State shall not allow any new occupations in the areas referred to in Article 1 of this Law,” this appears to be a provision that is impossible to enforce in practice and that neither remedies the defects identified above in Articles 1 and 2 of Ley 9073 nor, much less, prevents environmental harm.
It must be taken into consideration that, according to the Contraloría General de la República, the legislative history of the bill that gave rise to the challenged provision contains no official information identifying the families benefiting from the moratorium, the nature of their interest, their location, the conditions of the occupied area, or, in short, any information that would make it possible to identify the beneficiaries of the suspension individually. The moratorium is contrary to public policy (orden público), because it allows existing or new potential harm to the environment to continue or arise through the entry of new unlawful possessors or any other unlawful acts occurring after this prerogative was enacted. Consequently, the action is granted as to this claim, and Articles 2 and 5 of Ley 9073 are declared unconstitutional.
REGARDING THE PRINCIPLE OF NON-REGRESSION (principio de no regresión) OF PROTECTIONS. In turn, the principles of prevention (prevención) and precaution (precaución), also contained in the Rio Declaration, complement the principle of non-regression. This position was adopted by the Constitutional Chamber (Sala Constitucional) in Voto No. 2010-18202, which, insofar as relevant, provides: “Thus, the precautionary principle (principio precautorio) applies to the extent that there is uncertainty regarding the harm that may be caused and the mitigation or remediation measures that must be implemented, because once there is certainty about the type or magnitude of the environmental harm that may occur and the measures that must be adopted at each point in time, all doubt is eliminated and, consequently, applying the precautionary principle would be inappropriate. In other words, the precautionary principle must be applied in cases of reasonable doubt or uncertainty, but not when there is certainty regarding the type of harm and the measures that must be adopted, since the application of this principle would, by its very nature, be unworkable.
However, such an assessment is lacking in the present case. Certainly, each concession (concesión) will first require an environmental impact study (estudio de impacto ambiental) evaluated by SETENA; notwithstanding the foregoing, some of these ecosystems—for example, marine reserves—are areas that were protected precisely so that no extractive activity would take place in the area and so that it would not be affected by any type of pollution either (engine exhaust, noise pollution, light pollution, etc.), allowing the flora and fauna to regenerate over time until their populations reach the greatest number of specimens that the site can support; this is entirely incompatible with the granting of a tourist-marina concession because of the effects that would clearly alter the area. Other ecosystems among those cited may not necessarily require an absolute prohibition (veda absoluta) of all activity, but any authorization to that effect must be assessed and anticipated.
As already indicated, it is unreasonable to protect some areas but not others without a technical criterion supporting that distinction, because doing so violates the precautionary principle and the principle of progressive expansion (principio de progresividad) of the scope of protection of fundamental rights.” Essentially, the principle of non-regression states that environmental laws and case law should not be revised if doing so would constitute a retreat from previously attained levels of protection. Its purpose is to prevent the repeal of regulations or the reduction of their requirements due to competing interests that fail to demonstrate that they are legally superior to the environmental public interest, since such regressions may often result in irreversible environmental harm or harm that is difficult to remedy. The principle of non-regression necessarily entails a negative obligation to refrain from acting.
Accordingly, the level of environmental protection already attained must be respected and not diminished but, on the contrary, increased. The principal obligation entailed by its proper application is precisely that of not retreating, not impairing already established environmental-protection thresholds and standards, and not repealing or amending current regulations insofar as doing so would diminish, undermine, or in any way adversely affect the current level of protection. Therefore, the prohibition against regression (prohibición de regresividad) operates as a substantive safeguard that protects rights holders against regressive rules or policies, preventing the State from “taking a step backward.” Consistent with the foregoing, in the case of the challenged Ley No. 9073, the principle of non-regression in environmental matters is not satisfied because it moves from an administrative-protection regime (régimen de tutela administrativa), under which necessary and sufficient mechanisms remain in place to free natural areas from encroachments and unlawful occupations and to remove structures that may jeopardize the public purpose pursued through such areas, to a regime that tolerates such acts without adequate safeguards ensuring that the environment will not be affected.
In particular, challenged Article 3 introduces a regression in environmental matters by providing for the possible lifting of the moratorium (moratoria) only in the State Natural Heritage (patrimonio natural del Estado) and when those areas have been declared under that category. The cited provision 3 states: “Article 3.- In the case of areas declared State Natural Heritage, only the Minister of Environment and Energy may lift the moratorium, based on the relevant technical grounds, when it is determined that environmental harm has been committed or that there is a risk or threat of harm to the environment.” This provision not only reduces environmental protection in the terms described but also, without any justification, further reduces protection for the State Natural Heritage as compared with the maritime-terrestrial zone (zona marítimo terrestre) and border areas, since for the latter, both the Environmental Administrative Tribunal (Tribunal Ambiental Administrativo) and the Minister of Environment and Energy may issue interim measures (medidas cautelares) and administrative decisions (resoluciones administrativas) (Article 2), whereas for the aforementioned Heritage only that Minister may do so. Consequently, the action is granted with respect to this claim, and Article 3 of Ley 9073 is declared unconstitutional.
THE PRINCIPLE OF REASONABLENESS AND PROPORTIONALITY. In repeated rulings, this Chamber has indicated that this principle even constitutes a standard for reviewing the constitutionality (parámetro de constitucionalidad) of acts governed by public law (derecho público) (statutes, regulations, and administrative acts in general), which is why it has devoted attention to its analysis and development. In Voto No. 732-01 de las 12:24 horas del 26 de enero de 2001, this Constitutional Court stated as follows:
“(…) V.- THE PRINCIPLE OF REASONABLENESS AS A CONSTITUTIONAL STANDARD. Constitutional case law has been clear and consistent in holding that the principle of reasonableness constitutes a constitutional standard. It should first be recalled that the ‘reasonableness of the law’ arose as part of ‘substantive due process’ (substantive due process of law), a safeguard created by the case law of the Supreme Court of the United States of America in connection with the Fourteenth Amendment to the Federal Constitution. Under its initial conception, ‘due process’ was directed toward procedural review of legislative acts and their effect on substantive rights. By the end of the nineteenth century, however, the procedural conception from which it had originated was superseded, and it was elevated into an axiological mechanism limiting the actions of the legislative body. From that point onward, we may speak of due process as a general safeguard of liberty—that is, as a substantive safeguard.
The development of ‘due process’ beyond a procedural safeguard is based primarily on the fact that even a law that has followed the established procedure and is valid and effective may violate Constitutional Law (Derecho de la Constitución). To conduct the reasonableness analysis (juicio de razonabilidad), United States doctrine calls first for an examination of so-called ‘technical reasonableness,’ under which the specific rule (statute, regulation, etc.) is examined. Once it has been established that the selected rule is suitable for regulating a particular subject matter, it must be determined whether the means chosen are proportionate to the objective sought. After the ‘technical reasonableness’ criterion has been satisfied, ‘legal reasonableness’ must be analyzed. For this purpose, that doctrine proposes examining: a) balancing reasonableness (razonabilidad ponderativa), which is a type of legal assessment undertaken when, given the existence of a particular antecedent circumstance (e.g., income), a particular obligation is required (e.g., a tax), in which case it must be determined whether that obligation is equivalent or proportionate; b) equality-based reasonableness (razonabilidad de igualdad), which is the type of legal assessment based on the principle that equal antecedent circumstances must have equal consequences, without arbitrary exceptions; and c) purpose-based reasonableness (razonabilidad en el fin), under which it is assessed whether the objective to be attained is inconsistent with the purposes contemplated by the legislature when approving the measure.
As part of this same analysis, it is not enough to state that a means is reasonably suited to an end; it is also necessary to verify the nature and extent of the limitation that a personal right must bear as a result of that means. Thus, if the same end can be achieved through another means that imposes a less burdensome limitation on personal rights, the means chosen is not reasonable (…).” Following German doctrine, this Constitutional Chamber has held that the basic components of proportionality are legitimacy, suitability, necessity, and proportionality in the strict sense. Thus, in Voto No. 3933-98 de las 09:50 hhoras del 12 de junio de 1998, the following was stated: “(…) Legitimacy means that the objective sought through the challenged act or provision must not, at a minimum, be legally prohibited. Suitability means that the challenged State measure must be capable of effectively achieving the intended objective.
Necessity means that, from among several measures equally capable of achieving that objective, the competent authority must choose the one that affects the person’s legal sphere as little as possible. Proportionality in the strict sense requires that, in addition to the rule being suitable and necessary, what it mandates must not be disproportionate to the intended objective; that is, it must not impose an ‘unreasonable demand’ on the individual (…).” In Voto No. 8858-98 de las 16:33 horas del 15 de diciembre de 1998, this Court again referred to those components, holding that:
“(…) An act limiting rights is reasonable when it satisfies three conditions: it must be necessary, suitable, and proportionate. The necessity of a measure refers directly to the existence of a factual basis making it essential to protect an interest or group of interests belonging to the community—or to a particular group—by adopting a differentiating measure. In other words, if that action is not taken, important public interests will be harmed. If the limitation is not necessary, it cannot be regarded as reasonable and therefore constitutionally valid. Suitability, for its part, entails an assessment of whether the type of restriction to be adopted does or does not fulfill the purpose of satisfying the identified need. The unsuitability of the measure would indicate that other mechanisms may exist that better address the existing need, some of which might achieve the proposed purpose without restricting the enjoyment of the right in question.
Proportionality, in turn, requires a necessary comparison between the purpose pursued by the act and the type of restriction imposed or sought to be imposed, so that the limitation is not markedly greater than the benefit that it is intended to secure for the community. Of the latter two elements, it could be said that the first is based on a qualitative assessment, whereas the second is based on a quantitative comparison of the two objects analyzed. (…).” Consistent with the statements made by the proponents of the measure adopted in this Law, through the aforementioned 2-year moratorium, the original rationale underlying these provisions is that, for decades, generations comprising tens of thousands of Costa Rican families have inhabited Costa Rica’s coasts and islands, built their homes there, and engaged in economic activities such as artisanal fishing, local tourism, and agriculture, to name a few.
In many cases, however, those occupations lack State approval because they did not originate under concessions, which has led to a proliferation of evictions and demolitions of the structures built by those family units. Nevertheless, although this Chamber considers the concern expressed in this regard by the respective supporting intervenors to be valid, the fact remains that these regulations are not based on studies that document and in some manner identify the families or persons who, for one reason or another, are in this situation, making it impossible to determine whether the legislative measure adopted is strictly necessary. In this regard, this Constitutional Chamber, in judgment number 2006-17126 at 15:05 hours on November 28, 2006, stated:
“ Regarding the objective substantiation of environmental protection: as this Court noted in judgment number 14293-2005, at fourteen hours and fifty-two minutes on October 19, 2005, this is a principle that […], as derived from the provisions of Articles 16 and 160 of the General Law of Public Administration (Ley General de la Administración Pública), translates into the need to support decision-making in this area with technical studies, with respect both to acts and to provisions of a general nature—whether statutory or regulatory—from which arises the requirement of being “bound by science and technology,” thereby constraining the Administration’s discretion in this area. Thus, in light of the results derived from those technical studies—such as environmental impact studies (estudios de impacto ambiental)—if an objective technical criterion demonstrates the likelihood of manifest harm to the environment, natural resources, or human health, the proposed project, work, or activity must be rejected; and where there is “reasonable doubt,” decisions must be made in favor of the environment (pro-nature principle (principio pro-natura)), which may entail the adoption of both compensatory and precautionary measures in order to protect the environment adequately.” It must be borne in mind that, in environmental matters, the performance of prior technical studies substantiating a measure to remove property from the public domain (desafectación de bienes demaniales), or, in this case, a moratorium such as the one described, is simply the objective substantiation of the principle of reasonableness in environmental protection.
Since there are no objective prior studies on the effects that the moratorium at issue would have on the public interests and the State Natural Heritage (Patrimonio Natural del Estado), there is no adequate relationship between the means employed by the Law and the purposes that the measure is intended to achieve, nor is it objectively known whether the moratorium is appropriate; this is also contrary to the constitutional principles of objective substantiation, reasonableness, and proportionality. In the case of the regulations under review, the absence of prior technical studies determining not only the consequences that application of the cited moratorium could have for the State Natural Heritage, but also the failure to adopt specific measures preventing indiscriminate permission for all persons, without distinction, to obtain the benefit conferred by the challenged regulations, constitutes a clear threat to the environment.
A situation such as the one described gives rise to reasonable doubt regarding the challenged Law’s appropriate environmental protection, thereby undermining the in dubio pro natura principle and its derivative, the precautionary principle—both mentioned above—in violation of Article 50 of the Political Constitution (Constitución Política). Indeed, this Chamber agrees with the opponents of these regulations, who stated that doubt arises as to whether the Law may have been enacted solely with the specific circumstances of one particular community in one of the so-called “special areas” in mind. Moreover, the proportionality of the measure is questionable because, by framing it in such general terms, it could benefit persons whose unlawful circumstances the Law does not tolerate; namely, occupations originating in concessions granted to municipal council members or mayors in the Maritime-Terrestrial Zone (Zona Marítimo Terrestre), to natural persons holding more than one concession, to companies domiciled abroad, or to persons who have cut down forest or changed land use (cambio de uso del suelo) within protected wilderness areas (áreas silvestres protegidas).
The same may be said of the legal protection that would be afforded to persons who do not fit the profile of those mentioned in the explanatory statement, such as individuals with high purchasing power or business consortia undertaking major construction projects. Nor, in this Chamber’s view, is any distinction made among the different types of “special areas,” even though it is abundantly clear that an unlawful occupation within a forest reserve is not the same as one within a national park, where the environmental consequences may be extremely harmful and detrimental to ecosystems. Finally, there is no indication that an analysis was conducted of the possibility of resolving the factual situation giving rise to Ley No. 9073 through the use and application of existing legal instruments, without having to resort to a general moratorium such as the one ultimately embodied in the challenged provision.
It is even worth noting that, recently, our legislators have considered extending the moratorium reviewed here for a longer period, thereby giving concrete form to the concern already expressed by the Office of the Comptroller General of the Republic (Contraloría General de la República) that a measure harmful to the environment—which was initially intended to apply for a relatively short period—might be perpetuated over time.
THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUALITY, WITH REGARD TO SUSTAINABLE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT. The petitioner emphasizes that the content of the challenged Law violates the principle of equality enshrined in Article 33 of the Constitution, because that provision requires equal treatment of lands located in the Maritime-Terrestrial Zone, the Border Zone (Zona Fronteriza), or areas belonging to the State Natural Heritage, without distinguishing whether the persons are present in those areas legally or illegally, whether they are nationals or foreigners, natural persons or legal entities, or whether they engage in economic, artisanal, or subsistence-tourism activities. Indeed, many lawful occupants of the Maritime-Terrestrial Zone, protected wilderness areas, or border zones have had to invest time and financial resources to obtain legal status in accordance with the legal system—first, to obtain administrative authorization to occupy the space lawfully and, subsequently, to obtain construction permits in cases where the Law allows them—without overlooking the financial consideration they must regularly pay in order to continue enjoying their legal status.
By contrast, unlawful occupants who have disregarded the laws protecting the areas concerned by entering them without authorization, in some cases even committing acts harmful to the environment or erecting facilities without requesting any type of permit, will benefit from the general terms in which this provision was drafted. Thus, as the petitioner asserts, Ley No. 9073 places persons whose presence on the land they occupy is lawful and those whose presence is unlawful on an equal footing, even though their circumstances are not equal, by prohibiting both the eviction of the latter and the demolition of their structures. In the view of this Constitutional Court, such an imbalance is inequitable and violates the principle of equality. Furthermore, this Chamber does not consider the proponents of these regulations to be correct when they invoke novel concepts incorporated into modern environmental law that promote sustainable human development (desarrollo humano sostenible).
This Court understands that school of thought as a process of progressive change in the quality of human life that places the human being at the center and as the primary subject of development and is built upon the genuine leading role of people (families, children, producers, organizations, and local institutions), fostering a form of economic growth with social equity, as well as the transformation of production methods and consumption patterns based on ecological balance and supporting ways of life consistent with people’s values according to their environment. In constructing this approach, a leading role is assigned to human beings as promoters of local, regional, and national development, with the State acting to encourage creative solutions arising from all spheres, which emerge from the bottom up and are not imposed by laws or decrees. The idea is premised on giving persons a leading role in participation, without allowing their actions to be diminished by economic or political groups.
This type of development may be described as the process of transforming society that reconciles the satisfaction of human needs, choices, and capabilities, with the human being at the center and as the subject of development, safeguarding culture, properly allocating environmental costs to the economy, and expanding participation by the social base. This cannot be achieved without the comprehensive application of economic, social, and environmental policies and the participation of different stakeholders at different levels (local, regional, and global). It is an emerging concept that, although related to the notion of sustainable development—under which the activities of current generations must not diminish the opportunities and choices of future generations—includes the concept of human-scale development that makes it possible to improve people’s quality of life. In the case under review, however, that premise is not valid for the purposes before us because, in our view, the reasoning set forth in the preceding recitals unquestionably prevails and renders the challenged Articles unconstitutional.
In light of the foregoing considerations, this constitutional challenge must be granted, as will be stated in the operative portion of this judgment. The Chamber declines to rule on the remaining alleged grounds of unconstitutionality because doing so is unnecessary.
This challenge was granted, and I fully concur with the reasons stated in the judgment. Nevertheless, I consider it appropriate to highlight several additional reasons for this declaration of unconstitutionality, as set forth below.
The State has an obligation to act in defense of public-domain property (bienes demaniales). A law suspending the performance of that obligation would be unconstitutional, not only insofar as it permits a constitutional obligation to go unfulfilled, but also because such public-domain property is frequently related to the right to a healthy environment (derecho al ambiente), as it forms part of the State Natural Heritage (Patrimonio natural del Estado). I therefore consider that we are faced with a violation of the principle of effective protection (principio de tutela efectiva) of public-domain property and, moreover, a violation of the right to a healthy environment.
The challenged law distorted and reversed the meaning of these principles, because suspension of the protection of the public domain (demanio público) became the rule, while protection became the exception. That distortion clearly also entails a violation of the precautionary principle (principio precautorio) and the in dubio pro natura principle (principio in dubio pro natura), and consequently, once again, of the right to a healthy environment. The law’s intended purpose clearly infringes environmental protection (tutela del ambiente).
Likewise, there is an evident violation of the principle of non-regression (principio de no regresión), or principle of progressivity in environmental matters (principio de progresividad en materia ambiental), understood more broadly than indicated in this judgment, because I consider that, pursuant to that principle, it must be ensured that environmental protection is not weakened but, on the contrary, that environmental legislation is improved, including by increasing the level of protection on the basis of the most recent scientific knowledge. The State has an obligation to prevent regression while, at the same time, actively pursuing progressivity. Both obligations are violated by the challenged legislation. Environmental protection requires a very clearly defined progressive policy, because harm to the environment is serious and, in many cases, irreversible.
Laxity in environmental matters may have irremediable and sometimes catastrophic effects; that was the serious threat posed by the law declared unconstitutional.
POR TANTO:
The constitutional challenge filed against Law No. 9073, on the Protection of Occupants of Areas Classified as Special, dated September 19, 2012, is granted. Consequently, the Law is declared unconstitutional in its entirety. Pursuant to Article 91 of the Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional, this judgment shall have declaratory and retroactive effect as of the date on which the annulled provisions entered into force, without prejudice to rights acquired in good faith and to legal relationships or situations that may have become final through prescription (prescripción), expiration (caducidad), or by virtue of a judgment having the force of substantive res judicata (cosa juzgada material). It shall be published in full in the Boletín Judicial, and a summary shall be published in the Diario Oficial La Gaceta. Justice Cruz Castro provides additional reasons. Justice Hernández López adds a note. The President of the Asamblea Legislativa shall be notified for the appropriate action, as shall all parties.
Fernando Castillo V.
President Fernando Cruz C.
Paul Rueda L.
Nancy Hernández L.
Luis Fdo. Salazar A.
Jorge Araya G.
Hubert Fernández A.
*130015980007CO* Res. Nº 2019-012746 SALA CONSTITUCIONAL DE LA CORTE SUPREMA DE JUSTICIA. San José, a las doce horas y once minutos del diez de julio de dos mil diecinueve.
ACCIÓN DE INCONSTITUCIONALIDAD PROMOVIDA POR ROBERTO MIGUEL MOLINA UGALDE, CÉDULA DE IDENTIDAD 0501950151, EN REPRESENTACIÓN DE LA ASOCIACIÓN SINDICAL DE TRABAJADORES DEL MINISTERIO DE AMBIENTE Y ENERGÍA E INSTITUCIONES AFINES DE CONSERVACIÓN, CÉDULA DE PERSONA JURÍDICA 3011212127, CONTRA LOS ARTÍCULOS 1, 2 ,3 ,5 Y 6 DE LA LEY NÚMERO 9073, DE PROTECCION A LOS OCUPANTES DE ZONAS CLASIFICADAS COMO ESPECIALES.
RESULTANDO:
Artículo 14.- Condición inembargable e inalienable del patrimonio natural Los terrenos forestales y bosques que constituyen el patrimonio natural del Estado, detallados en el artículo anterior, serán inembargables e inalienables; su posesión por los particulares no causará derecho alguno a su favor y la acción reivindicatoria del Estado por estos terrenos es imprescriptible. En consecuencia, no pueden inscribirse en el Registro Público mediante información posesoria y tanto la invasión como la ocupación de ellos será sancionada conforme a lo dispuesto en esta ley.” (Ley Forestal, No. 7575 de 13 de febrero de 1996). Al tratarse de bienes demaniales, les son aplicables las reglas propias de ese régimen: “El dominio público se encuentra integrado por bienes que manifiestan, por voluntad expresa del legislador, un destino especial de servir a la comunidad, al interés público.- Son los llamados bienes dominicales, bienes dominiales, bienes o cosas públicas o bienes públicos, que no pertenecen individualmente a los particulares y que están destinados a un uso público y sometidos a un régimen especial, fuera del comercio de los hombres.- Es decir, afectados por su propia naturaleza y vocación.- En consecuencia, esos bienes pertenecen al Estado en el sentido más amplio del concepto, están afectados al servicio que prestan y que invariablemente es esencial en virtud de norma expresa.- Notas características de estos bienes, es que son inalienables, imprescriptibles, inembargables, no pueden hipotecarse ni ser susceptibles de gravamen en los términos del Derecho Civil y la acción administrativa sustituye a los interdictos para recuperar el dominio.- Como están fuera del comercio, estos bienes no pueden ser objeto de posesión, aunque se puede adquirir un derecho al aprovechamiento, aunque no un derecho a la propiedad.” (Voto No. 2306-91 de 14 horas 45 minutos del 6 de noviembre de 1991).
Como ha determinado en otras oportunidades esa Sala, por tratarse de bienes de dominio público les sería aplicable el régimen de autotutela administrativa, por el cual, es posible a las autoridades competentes actuar en defensa de los bienes demaniales cuya protección les ha sido encomendada por ley, ante ocupaciones ilegítimas de terceros, acudiendo a la vía del desalojo y demolición de obras si fuese necesario: “No se discute, porque no lo ha discutido el actor, si la Administración puede en ejercicio de sus facultades de auto tutela, recuperar la posesión de quien indebidamente la ha tomado en tratándose del dominio público. La doctrina, la legislación y la jurisprudencia nacionales y extranjeras, han sido contestes en tal sentido (Voto No. 0447-91 de las 15 horas 30 minutos del 21 de febrero de 1991). “… se desprende que el Ministerio de Seguridad Pública logró acreditar que el inmueble en cuestión le pertenece y consiste en un bien demanial, que, por su naturaleza, se caracteriza por ser inalienable, imprescriptible e inembargable, por lo que la mera ocupación, independientemente del tiempo de la misma, no genera derechos sobre el inmueble.
Por ello, no observa esta Sala que el desalojo administrativo ordenado por el Ministerio de Seguridad Pública, dentro del ámbito de su competencia, resulte arbitrario.” (Voto No. 9245-2012 de las 14 horas 30 minutos del 17 de julio de 2012). Siendo entonces que, mediante la Ley No. 9073 impugnada se suspende el desalojo de personas y demolición de obras, acciones administrativas ambas que derivan del principio de autotutela administrativa que caracteriza a los bienes de dominio público, y que son necesarias para mantener su integridad, resguardándola de la invasión y ocupación ilegales de particulares, con lo que, evidentemente, se está menoscabando la aplicación práctica de dicho principio y poniendo en grave riesgo tales bienes, los que por tener características ambientales, redundan asimismo en violación a los derechos a un ambiente sano y ecológicamente equilibrado y de protección a las bellezas naturales.
En cuanto a la pretendida violación al principio de imprescriptibilidad de los bienes de dominio público que alega la parte accionante, su violación podría estarse dando de forma indirecta, ya que, si bien es cierto, la Ley No. 9073 no está permitiendo el apoderamiento de bienes demaniales para efectos de prescripción positiva y adquisición de la propiedad por particulares; resulta lógico que al no permitirse ningún desalojo o demolición en tales bienes, cualquier acción reivindicatoria estatal para recuperar aquellos que hubiesen sido indebidamente apropiados, terminaría frustrada, por cuanto, aunque declarado el derecho a su favor, no podría reintegrar a su patrimonio los bienes sustraídos de su administración, quedando los particulares ilegales igualmente en ocupación de los terrenos invadidos. Si no se permite el efecto deseado final de toda acción reivindicatoria, cual es la recuperación efectiva para el dueño del bien indebidamente apropiado, se está haciendo nugatoria la misma acción de reivindicación.
Ahora, en cuanto al principio de intangibilidad de la zona marítimo terrestre, señaló la Sala Constitucional en el Voto No. 3113-2009 de las 14 horas 59 minutos del 25 de febrero de 2009: “Por las razones que se expondrán a continuación, esta Sala concluye que las disposiciones de la ley impugnada mencionadas en el considerando anterior –con excepción de la segunda- resultan flagrantemente contrarias al Derecho de nuestra Constitución Política. A) Violación al principio de intangibilidad de la zona marítimo terrestre, conforme a este principio, derivado de la relación entre los artículos 6, 50 y 121 inciso 14 e la Constitución Política, la zona marítimo terrestre – en especial la parte denominada zona pública- no puede ser desafectada del dominio público, con fundamento en varias razones. En primer lugar, porque dicha zona ya fue integrada y forma parte del patrimonio natural del Estado.
En segundo lugar, porque el uso de dicha zona – en especial las playas marítimas- es común y están destinadas al uso gratuito de todos los habitantes, indistintamente, de modo que el uso de unos no impida el de los demás interesados. En tercer lugar, porque la técnica demanial es el medio más eficaz para la protección de los bienes marítimo-terrestres y para que el Estado cumpla con su deber de garantizar, defender y preservar un ambiente sano y ecológicamente equilibrado a todos los habitantes del país. En cuanto a este último aspecto, ciertamente el uso privado de las playas marítimas pone en peligro el derecho al ambiente ya que esas zonas del demanio público podrían ser objeto de construcciones y otras intromisiones que pondrían en peligro los bienes costeros y todo su ecosistema.” Si bien, reitera, la Ley No. 9073 no tiene como propósito desafectar la zona marítimo terrestre y permitir su apropiación privada, es evidente que permitir la ocupación ilegal de personas en esa franja no ajustada a un plan regulador, y particularmente en la zona pública, estaría contraviniendo el mismo principio de intangibilidad mencionado, al privar al resto de la población de su uso efectivo conforme a la ley y poner en riesgo el propio ecosistema costero.
Así, si se consiente la ocupación irregular de las áreas de playa mediante instalaciones de cualquier tipo, haciendo un uso privativo de ellas, se están eliminando o limitando las posibilidades para que el resto de personas puedan hacer un libre uso de esas áreas. No debe perderse de vista que de acuerdo con el artículo 20 de la Ley sobre la Zona Marítimo Terrestre, la faja de 50 metros de ancho a contar de la pleamar ordinaria (denominada zona pública, artículo 10 de la misma Ley) está dedicada al uso público y en especial al libre tránsito de las personas. Ese mismo numeral establece que la zona pública no puede ser objeto de ocupación bajo ningún título ni en ningún caso. Un caso similar sucedería con la zona restringida (restantes 150 metros, artículo 10 ibíd.), en donde la ocupación ilegítima estaría privando a otras personas de acceder a esa franja mediante una concesión debidamente otorgada (artículo 39 de la misma Ley).
Y en ambas franjas, pública y restringida, si se permite la ocupación ilegítima se estarían poniendo en peligro los recursos costeros y naturales en ellas existentes, al no darse ningún tipo de control preventivo eficiente, violentándose lo normado en el artículo 17 de la Ley No. 6043. En lo tocante al principio precautorio, la Sala Constitucional lo ha conceptualizado en los siguientes términos: “ A fin de evitar que la existencia del derecho a un ambiente sano y ecológicamente equilibrado esté restringida al plano semántico de la realidad jurídica, el derecho ambiental ha integrado una serie de principios rectores que garantizan la tutela efectiva del derecho. Uno de los principios esenciales que componen el derecho ambiental es el "principio precautorio" o "principio de la evitación prudente", el cual está contenido en la Conferencia de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Medio Ambiente y el Desarrollo, Declaración de Río, que literalmente indica: "Principio 15.- Con el fin de proteger el medio ambiente, los Estados deberán aplicar ampliamente el criterio de precaución conforme a sus capacidades.
Cuando haya peligro de daño grave e irreversible, la falta de certeza científica absoluta no deberá utilizarse como razón para postergar la adopción de medidas eficaces en función de los costos para impedir la degradación del medio ambiente". (En igual sentido ver artículo 11 de la Ley de Biodiversidad). El término prevención deriva del latín "praeventio", que alude a la acción y efecto de prevenir, a aquellas preparaciones y disposiciones que se hacen anticipadamente para evitar un riesgo o ejecutar una cosa. La prevención pretende anticiparse a los efectos negativos, y asegurar la protección, conservación y adecuada gestión de los recursos. Consecuentemente, el principio rector de prevención se fundamenta en la necesidad de tomar y asumir todas las medidas precautorias para evitar o contener la posible afectación del ambiente o la salud de las personas. De esta forma, en caso que exista un riesgo de daño grave o irreversible -o una duda al respecto-, se debe adoptar una medida de precaución e inclusive posponer la actividad de que se trate.
Lo anterior debido a que en materia ambiental la coacción a posteriori resulta ineficaz, por cuanto de haberse producido ya las consecuencias biológicas y socialmente nocivas, la represión podrá tener una trascendencia moral, pero difícilmente compensará los daños ocasionados al ambiente.” (Voto No. 2219-1999 de 15 horas 18 minutos de 24 de marzo de 1999). Al estipular el artículo 2 de la Ley No. 9073 que la moratoria “no excluye dictar las medidas cautelares judiciales o administrativas, ni la ejecución de resoluciones judiciales o administrativas en firme, en ambos casos cuando se determine la comisión de daño ambiental o peligro o amenaza de daño al medio ambiente”, podríamos estar en presencia de dos posibles lesiones al principio precautorio. La primera, porque una de las causales para imponer medidas cautelares y ejecución de resoluciones es la producción de un daño ambiental, es decir, que se reacciona cuando ya se ha producido el efecto negativo en el ambiente, que es justo lo que se pretende evitar con el principio precautorio; y en segundo término, porque la norma no parece incluir la posibilidad que en caso de duda de peligro o amenaza al ambiente se pueda actuar, sino que pareciera señalar que tal peligro o amenaza debe ser cierto o comprobado.
La Sala ha dado suma importancia al hecho que la duda no sólo es suficiente, sino necesaria para la aplicación del principio precautorio (Voto No. 18702-2010 de las 15 horas 27 minutos de 10 de noviembre de 2010). A lo anterior debe añadirse que según el párrafo segundo del propio artículo 2 de la Ley No. 9073 las únicas resoluciones administrativas que podrían ejecutarse son las emitidas por el Tribunal Ambiental Administrativo o el Ministro de Ambiente y Energía, dejándose de lado a otros órganos y entidades que también tienen competencia en esta materia como el Ministerio de Salud, las diferentes Áreas de Conservación del Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación, las municipalidades, etc., con lo que se reducen las posibilidades de actuar de manera preventiva. De igual forma surge la interrogante sobre el modo en que se va a determinar el daño o el peligro o amenaza de éste, vista la gran cantidad de territorio que deberá cubrirse (zonas fronterizas, zona marítimo terrestre, áreas silvestres protegidas, bosques y terrenos forestales del Patrimonio Natural del Estado de todo el país) y la escasez de recursos con que se cuenta actualmente y que deberán destinarse para realizar semejante labor.
Es esperable que en muchos casos la amenaza de daño ambiental termine por materializarse antes de que se emita la medida administrativa que lo evite. Sobre el principio de no regresión, ha expresado de manera reciente esa Sala Constitucional que, estudiado en el Voto No. 13367-2012 de las 11 horas 33 minutos del 21 de septiembre de 2012, con lo cual, en el caso de la Ley No. 9073 cuestionada, el principio de no regresión en materia ambiental parecería no cumplirse, por cuanto se pasa de un régimen de tutela administrativa en el cual existen suficientes mecanismos para liberar a áreas naturales estratégicas de invasiones y ocupaciones ilegales, así como el levantamiento de obras que pueden poner en peligro el fin público perseguido con tales áreas, a un régimen que tolera tales actos sin que existan garantías adecuadas de que el ambiente no se va a ver afectado. De otro lado, la justificación de la moratoria tampoco aparenta ser razonable y proporcional, acreditan.
También coincide dicho Órgano Asesor con el supuesto específico que menciona la parte accionante donde estaría violentándose, asimismo, el principio de no regresión: “Particularmente el artículo 3 promulga una regresión en materia ambiental al estipular la posible desaplicación de la moratoria sólo en el PNE y cuando esas zonas hayan sido declaradas bajo esa categoría. Esto deviene en inconstitucional, tal como la Sala Constitucional lo determinó respecto al artículo 7 de la Ley de Biodiversidad (realmente es la Ley de Conservación de Vida Silvestre), en tanto requería que los humedales fueran creados y delimitados por decreto ejecutivo.” Dispone el numeral 3° de cita: “Artículo 3.- Cuando se trate de zonas declaradas patrimonio natural del Estado, únicamente el ministro de Ambiente y Energía podrá desaplicar la moratoria, mediante la fundamentación técnica pertinente, cuando se determine la comisión de daño ambiental o peligro o amenaza de daño al medio ambiente.” Mediante esta norma no sólo se está dando una disminución de la tutela ambiental en los términos expuestos, sino que tambi én, y sin justificación alguna, disminuye aún más para el Patrimonio Natural del Estado la protección con respecto a la zona marítimo terrestre y las zonas fronterizas; ya que para éstas las medidas cautelares y resoluciones administrativas las pueden dictar tanto el Tribunal Ambiental Administrativo como el Ministro de Ambiente y Energía (artículo 2°), mientras que para aquel Patrimonio lo sería sólo dicho Ministro.
Además, y como lo afirma la accionante, al limitarlo a las “zonas declaradas” estaría creando una incertidumbre en cuanto a la tutela a aplicar en otros supuestos de Patrimonio Natural del Estado que no han sido declarados expresamente por decreto o ley, pero que igual lo integran, como muchas áreas de humedal o “los bosques y terrenos forestales de las reservas nacionales, de las áreas declaradas inalienables, de las fincas inscritas a su nombre y de las pertenecientes a municipalidades, instituciones autónomas y demás organismos de la Administración Pública” (artículo 13 de la Ley Forestal). También, argumenta la accionante, que “ el principio de igualdad consagrado en el artículo 33 de la Carta Magna implica tratar como iguales a los iguales y como desiguales a los desiguales, en ese sentido consideramos que la Ley No. 9073 violenta ese principio en sus artículos 1, 3 y 6, al disponer un trato igualitario a todas las personas físicas y jurídicas de terrenos ubicados en la Zona Marítimo Terrestre, en la Zona Fronteriza o pertenecientes al Patrimonio Natural del Estado, sin diferenciar si éstos se encuentran en esas áreas de manera legal o ilegal, si se trata de nacionales o extranjeros, o bien de personas físicas o jurídicas, si realizan actividades económicas, artesanales o de turismo de subsistencia, o no, entre otros aspectos.” En efecto, muchos de los ocupantes legales de la zona marítimo terrestre, de áreas silvestres protegidas o de zonas fronterizas han tenido que invertir tiempo y recursos económicos para obtener un estatus jurídico conforme al ordenamiento jurídico, primero para obtener la autorización administrativa para ocupar válidamente el espacio demanial (concesión, permiso de uso o contrato de arrendamiento, según los casos) y luego para poder obtener permisos de construcción, en los casos que la Ley permite, sin olvidar el pago de cánones o contraprestaciones económicas que regularmente deben hacer para seguir disfrutando de su situación jurídica, porque así lo exige el ordenamiento.
Por el contrario, los ocupantes ilegales han irrespetado las leyes protectoras de las áreas involucradas, introduciéndose en ellas de manera no autorizada, en algunos casos realizando actos dañinos al ambiente, y en otros, levantando instalaciones sin solicitar ningún tipo de permiso. Todo lo anterior sin realizar erogación económica alguna por efecto de trámites administrativos. Sin embargo, con la Ley No. 9073, como lo afirma la parte accionante, se colocan en condición de igualdad, sin tenerla, a personas legales e ilegales en cuanto a permanencia en el terreno que ocupan, al no permitirse el desalojo de los segundos ni la demolición de sus construcciones ilegales. Tal desbalance no es equitativo y parece quebrantar el principio constitucional de igualdad. Acorde con los principios de razonabilidad y proporcionalidad, se tiene que de acuerdo con la cita que hace la parte actora en su escrito de interposición, éstas son las razones en su exposición de motivos que justificaron la Ley No. 9073: “durante décadas, generaciones de decenas de miles de familias costarricenses han habitado en las costas e islas de nuestro país.
Estas familias han construido sus hogares y desarrollado actividades productivas como la pesca artesanal, el turismo local, y la agricultura, entre otras, en áreas que forman parte de la Zona Marítimo Terrestre, de la Zona Fronteriza y del Patrimonio Natural del Estado. No obstante, pese a los largos períodos de ocupación y de uso de esos territorios, la ocupación se ha dado, en muchos casos, sin contar con una concesión del Estado para ello. Esto, aunado a la naturaleza misma de los terrenos, ha generado que diversas instancias se hayan visto obligadas a promover desalojos de las familias y derribo de las construcciones, que se encuentran en esa situación, desencadenando una problemática social grave al dejar a estas personas sin su techo habitual y en muchos caos sin acceso a la actividad productiva que les da sustento diario”. Sin embargo, no se aportó al expediente legislativo ningún estudio complementario que documentara la veracidad de tales afirmaciones.
No existe ningún censo que establezca los años de ocupación de las personas en las diferentes áreas estatales, su cantidad y si, efectivamente, sobre todas pesa una orden de desalojo o demolición. Al no existir tal diagnóstico, se torna imposible la determinación sobre la estricta necesidad de la medida legislativa tomada. De hecho surge la duda de si la Ley se habrá promulgado pensando, únicamente, en la situación específica de una comunidad concreta de una de las denominadas “áreas especiales”. Por otro lado, es cuestionable la proporcionalidad de la medida en tanto al hacerse de una forma tan genérica, podría estar beneficiando a personas cuya situación ilegítima la Ley no tolera; por ejemplo, la ocupación cuyo origen se fundamenta en concesiones otorgadas a regidores o alcaldes municipales en zona marítimo terrestre (artículo 46 de la Ley No. 6043), a personas físicas con más de una concesión (artículo 57, inciso e), ibíd.), a sociedades domiciliadas en el exterior (artículo 47, inciso c), ibíd.), a personas que hayan cortado bosque o cambiado el uso del suelo dentro de áreas silvestres protegidas (artículos 18 y 19 de la Ley Forestal), por mencionar sólo algunos.
Lo mismo valdría decir del amparo legal que se estaría otorgando a personas que no reúnen el perfil de las que se mencionan en la exposición de motivos, como sujetos con alto poder adquisitivo o consorcios económicos con proyectos constructivos importantes. Tampoco se hace distinción entre los diferentes tipos de “áreas especiales”, siendo muy evidente que no es lo mismo, verbigracia, una ocupación irregular dentro de una reserva forestal que dentro de un parque nacional, donde las consecuencias ambientales pueden ser muy perniciosas para los ecosistemas. Finalmente, tampoco se aprecia que se haya hecho un análisis sobre la posibilidad de resolver la situación fáctica que genera la Ley No. 9073 mediante los instrumentos legales existentes, sin tener que recurrir a una moratoria general. Por ejemplo, en el caso de la zona marítimo terrestre los pobladores existentes en el terreno de manera previa a la promulgación de la Ley No. 6043 pueden permanecer en ella hasta que se apruebe el respectivo plan regulador (artículo 70 de esa Ley), disfrutando además de un derecho de prelación en el otorgamiento de concesiones si el uso solicitado se ajusta a la planificación (artículo 44 ibíd.).
También en el sector costero, las municipalidades gozan de las facultades de planificación suficientes para tomar en cuenta en sus planes reguladores la existencia de poblados e incluirlos en ellos, y posteriormente otorgar las concesiones respectivas. En el caso del Instituto de Desarrollo Rural cuenta con un reglamento para otorgar arrendamientos en franja fronteriza (acuerdo tomado por la Junta Directiva de esa entidad en el artículo No. 2 de la sesión extraordinaria 010-2008, celebrada el 28 de abril de 2008), con derecho de preferencia a quien haya aprovechado el terreno en forma quieta, pública, pacífica, en forma continua, de buena fe, sin menoscabo del interés público (artículo 12). Las anteriores circunstancias hacen dudar sobre la razonabilidad y proporcionalidad de la Ley No. 9073 en punto a solucionar adecuadamente la situación fáctica explicada en su independencia funcional del Poder Judicial y de la Contraloría General de la República, así como el principio de justicia pronta y cumplida, comparte dicho Órgano Asesor el motivo de inconstitucionalidad sugerido por la Asociación accionante por violación a los artículos 49 y 153 de la Constitución Política, en la medida en que al disponerse la suspensión de desalojos de personas y demoliciones de obras en la zona marítimo terrestre, zonas fronterizas y Patrimonio Natural del Estado (artículo 1° de la Ley No. 9037) se estaría impidiendo la ejecución de sentencias firmes dictadas por tribunales de justicia con motivo de procesos de su conocimiento, así como el disponer medidas cautelares de conformidad al mérito de los autos, y no solo en aquellos casos en que se determine la comisión de daño ambiental o peligro o amenaza de daño al medio ambiente, como lo dispone el artículo 2° de la misma Ley.
También podría existir una lesión al principio de división de poderes contenido en el artículo 9 de la Constitución Política al estar impidiendo la Asamblea Legislativa mediante un acto legislativo la ejecución de resoluciones judiciales firmes. El principio de justicia pronta y cumplida del artículo 41 de la Constitución Política también se estaría comprometiendo al no poderse ejecutar sentencias firmes ni tomarse medidas cautelares de forma inmediata cuando tales actos judiciales conlleven las conductas suspendidas en el artículo 1° de la Ley No. 9073. Las partes gananciosas en procesos judiciales, incluyendo al propio Estado, tendrían que esperar hasta que termine la moratoria para poder hacer efectivos sus derechos ya reconocidos en sentencias judiciales firmes, si no es que viene otra ley a impedir nuevamente la ejecución. De otra parte, también las competencias constitucionales dispuestas para la Contraloría General de la República en los numerales 183 y 184 de la Constitución Políticas relativas a la vigilancia de la Hacienda Pública se podrían estar quebrantando, al impedirse, por ejemplo, la implementación de las disposiciones contenidas en informes de fiscalización dirigidos a órganos o entidades públicas, cuando estos contengan instrucciones relativas a desalojo de personas o demolición de obras en las denominadas por la Ley No. 9037 “zonas clasificadas como especiales.
Finalmente, en cuanto a los principios de seguridad jurídica e interdicción de la arbitrariedad, aduce, no quedan claros los motivos de inconstitucionalidad acusados por la parte gestionante en estos dos apartados de su libelo en tanto más bien parecen estar referidos a criterios de legalidad y aplicación en la práctica de la Ley cuestionada, por lo que se omite hacer un análisis de constitucionalidad en cuanto a ellos; considerando suficientes, además, los criterios
Articulo 2: - Deróganse los artículos 5 y 6 del Decreto Ejecutivo No. 16614-MAG, de 1° de junio de 1985, que creó el Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Gandoca Manzanillo, en los términos en que fue redactado. Con lo anterior, consideran, vuelven a quedar incluidas dentro del refugio las zonas de Gandoca, Manzanillo y Puerto Viejo. Este hecho provocó en el pueblo todo un movimiento e inconformidad, dada la inseguridad jurídica y el abuso de poder. En la Gaceta 202 del 22 de octubre del año 2007, se publicó el decreto 34043 MINAE, el cual, entre otras cosas, en su artículo 7 dice: Deróguese el Decreto No. 32753 del 25 de noviembre de 2005. Con lo anterior, volvió a entrar en vigencia el artículo 6 del decreto original 16614 de creación del Refugio. Con lo anterior, las zonas urbanas nuevamente vuelven a quedar fuera del mismo, con el consentimiento expreso de la Asesoría Legal del SINAC y la Gerencia de Áreas Silvestres Protegidas.
El borrador de decreto 34043-MINAE que nació desde el SINAC, fue apoyado por el Ministro de ese entonces por dos razones de peso: a) porque la promulgación del decreto No. 32753-MINAE, por parte del Ministro de turno Carlos Manuel Rodríguez, no tuvo sustento legal alguno, b) nunca tuvo un sustento técnico- científico, que justificara la inclusión de dichas áreas, requisito este último, tal y como lo han expuesto, es necesario e indispensable para afectar cualquier área que quiera cambiarse a la categoría de ASP de acuerdo a la ley vigente. Indican que desde la creación del RNVS Gandoca Manzanillo, mediante decreto No. 16614-MAG, se excluyeron expresamente las zonas urbanas de Gandoca, Manzanillo y Puerto Viejo en su artículo 6. La Contraloría General de la República emite el Informe No. OFOEPGAA-59-2008, referente a un estudio " sobre la gestión del MINAET en las aéreas silvestres protegidas costeras del país", dicho informe concluye entre otras cosas lo siguiente: a. El SINAC no ha actualizado ni formalizado las políticas existentes para el manejo, control y protección de las áreas silvestres protegidas (ASP) del país. b. Que ello evidencia que el SINAC adolece de un procedimiento mediante el cual se elaboren, comuniquen e implementen las políticas de la Institución, necesario para la formalización de un marco orientador preciso e integral que dirija a las ASP en la administración, control y protección. c. Que también se aprecian, vacíos en políticas relativas alternas relevantes, como las condiciones particulares de manejo de las siete categorías de manejo existentes. d. Igualmente en cuanto a las condiciones específicas para aquellas ASP ubicadas en los litorales del país, afectadas por el dinámico crecimiento del sector tur ístico, inmobiliario, comercial y poblacional, situación que enfrentan 6 de las 11 Áreas de Conservación integrantes del SINAC (Tempisque, Guanacaste, Pacífico Central, Amistad Caribe, Tortuguero y Osa).
Tales deficiencias existen a pesar que el artículo 22 de la Ley de Biodiversidad, señala la responsabilidad jurídica del SINAC de dictar políticas, así como, planificar y ejecutar procesos que aseguren la sostenibilidad en el manejo de los recursos naturales del país. Subraya que el MINAE y el SINAC están obligados a eliminar las políticas ambientales necesarias para la administración, protección y control de las ASP constituidas por terrenos, humedales y porciones de mar que han sido declaradas como tales, por representar ecosistemas que poseen especies amenazadas y que han sido clasificadas bajo diferentes categorías de manejo según su naturaleza, con el fin de dedicarlas a la conservación y protección de la biodiversidad, el suelo, el recurso hídrico, los recursos culturales y los servicios de los ecosistemas en general, según lo establece el artículo 32 de la Ley Orgánica del Ambiente (Reservas Forestales, Zonas Protectoras, Parques Nacionales, Reservas Biológicas, Refugios Nacionales de Vida Silvestre, Humedales y Monumentos Nacionales).
En respuesta a los cuestionamientos señalados por la Contraloría General de la República, sobre las políticas generales en materia de áreas silvestres protegidas, el Ministerio de Ambiente Energía y Telecomunicaciones, mediante oficio DM- 445-09, de fecha 30 de marzo del año 2009, presenta un recurso de revisión a la Contraloría General de la República, cuyos argumentos se resumen de la siguiente manera: a) El informe emitido por la Contraloría General de la República, si bien señala el incumplimiento a lo dispuesto por la Ley de Biodiversidad como causa de todas las deficiencias encontradas, paralelamente ignora y omite por completo el hecho que el Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación (SINAC), es un Sistema creado por la Ley de Biodiversidad de 1998, la cual sufrió casi por siete años de una total paralización por un Recurso de inconstitucionalidad planteado en contra de la misma por parte de la Ministra de Ambiente en ese momento, la Licda. Elizabeth Odio Benito y que con claridad impidió su aplicación, lo cual motivó y hasta fomentó dicha parálisis, dado la duración de la Sala Constitucional en resolver para declararlo al final, sin lugar. b) Indica el oficio del Ministerio, que nuestro país cae en un letargo e inseguridad jurídica cada vez que cualquier ciudadano, grupo de interés u otro interpone un recurso de inconstitucionalidad.
Esto es hecho público y notorio que motivó una parálisis en el sistema, ha sido de inexplicable omisión por parte de la Contraloría General de la República. e) Indica también que es importante señalar, que las dos administraciones anteriores (1998-2022 y 2002-2006), evadieron la aplicación de lo dispuesto por la Ley de Biodiversidad en lo referente a la conformación y operatividad del Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación (SINAC) señalado por 1a misma, a su juicio fomentado por una política de solapada centralización, que impedía de una u otra forma darle las herramientas operativas para que el sistema empezara su función de acuerdo a los dictados de la ley. d) El mismo jerarca indica que se mantuvo un SINAC hegemónico, burocrático e ineficiente en la sede central del entonces MINAET y un conjunto aislado de sedes de Áreas de Conservación escasamente provistas de recursos y de capacidad operativa.
Precisamente, el modelo opuesto que la Ley de Biodiversidad pretendía superar mediante la definición de los objetivos y potestades del Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación, así como la descentralización por medio de las Áreas de Conservación, para una mejor gestión de1ambiente (Sección 11 artículos 22 al 43,). Sigue indicando el oficio: La actual Administración (2006-2010), en lo referente al sector ambiental, hereda lamentablemente, las consecuencias de 105 vicios apuntados. Esta administración, aseguran, al final del año 2005, y con una gran resistencia del "SINAC" de la sede central, comienza a aplicar la reforma del SINAC establecida por la Ley de Biodiversidad, la cual estuvo impugnada por casi 7 años. Así por ejemplo, el Consejo Nacional de Áreas de Conservación (CONAC) comenzó a operar muy recientemente en concordancia con los lineamientos que dicta la Ley. Así también, argumentan, son recientes la puesta en funcionamiento de los Consejos Regionales y el ejercicio de algunas de sus competencias y funciones.
Esto por supuesto, debido a la misma parálisis de la que fue objeto en su momento, por parte del recurso de inconstitucionalidad. Señalan que el Reglamento a la Ley de Biodiversidad, se promulgó apenas el 8 de abril del 2008 por las razones que apuntaron. Entre otras disposiciones, dicho reglamento estableció: “Transitorio I.- En un plazo de doce meses posteriores a la entrada en vigencia del presente Reglamento, el Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación formulará y oficializará las directrices técnicas para las categorías de manejo de áreas silvestres protegidas de Costa Rica". e) Por otro lado, es muy oportuno señalar que el informe de la Contraloría General de la República, omite e ignora los importantes aportes del CONAC, relativos a los temas señalados por la Contraloría. Este órgano tiene las siguientes funciones que le otorga la Ley de Biodiversidad, mismo que ni siquiera es tomado en cuenta en el informe dictaminado por el ente Contralor. g) Sigue indicando el jerarca en el recurso de revisión que lo único que se demuestra por parte del ente contralor, es que éste no comprendió que el modelo establecido por la Ley de Biodiversidad se enmarca en los más sagrados principios de la democracia nacional y está conceptualizado dentro de un ordenamiento jurídico del ambiente que va más allá de la protección de la naturaleza, incorporando al ser humano como actor primordial del mismo.
Ante esta situación nos preguntamos, cómo es posible que muchas personas pretendan proteger el ambiente sin la intervención directa del ser humano?. Cómo se puede hablar de armonía con la naturaleza si se excluye al ser humano de ella?. El informe de la Contraloría General de la República olvida el modelo planteado en la Ley de Biodiversidad, la cual contiene una abundante normativa nacional, así como reconocidos principios internacionales, en que se ha comprometido nuestro país a cumplir mediante la suscripción de conocidos y numerosos convenios, los cuales reconocen que la participación de las comunidades locales y los habitantes en general, en la conservación y uso racional de los recursos naturales, constituyen un requisito fundamental para un efectivo y posible desarrollo sostenible en armonía con la naturaleza. Precisamente toda esta riqueza jurídica y de principios internacionales, permitió desarrollar en Costa Rica, un modelo que se debe visualizar de manera descentralizada.
Por lo anterior, se crearon las unidades territoriales (denominadas Áreas de Conservación), capaces de armonizar la legislación vigente en materia ambiental con la realidad de su demarcación geográfica, en estrecha coordinación con sociedad interactuante y con el testo del sector público particular de esa jurisdicción. Este modelo, plantea un nuevo esquema de gestión administrativa de las Áreas Silvestres Protegidas que busca involucrar ya no sólo el criterio de autoridad y técnico del Estado, sino también a los ciudadanos que viven y habitan en dichas zonas. El artículo 29 de la Ley de Biodiversidad crea los denominados Consejos Regionales del Área de Conservación (CORAC), cuya integración requiere de una convocatoria pública a todas las organizaciones no gubernamentales y comunales interesadas, de modo que además del servidor público responsable del área de conservación respectiva y del representante municipal, se cuente con representantes de distintos sectores organizados en el área.
Tal participación resulta fundamental, tomando en consideración que dicho Consejo Regional forma parte de la estructura administrativa de las Áreas de Conservación y que dos de sus funciones consisten, precisamente, en velar por la integración de las necesidades comunales en los planes y actividades del Área de Conservación, así como en fomentar la participación de los diferentes sectores del Área en el análisis, la discusión y la búsqueda de soluciones para los problemas regionales relacionados con recursos naturales y el ambiente. A su vez los Consejos Regionales, en razón de la complejidad del Área de Conservación podrán integrar Consejos Locales mediante un acuerdo de creación con reglas claras y fines específicos. El Consejo Nacional de Áreas de Conservación (CONAC), constituye entonces el foro en donde se vierte la realidad y la experiencia de diversas vertientes: la sociedad civil y las organizaciones, a través de los consejos locales y los miembros del CORAC las Organizaciones sectoriales mayores por medio de la CONAGEBIO.
En este marco conceptual y jurídico, se aportan los insumos que han demostrado buenos resultados e identifican los vacíos técnico - jurídicos y operativos necesarios de llenar para una adecuada gestión. Por esta razón, sorprende la limitada interpretación que la Contraloría General de la República. hace del modelo, refiriéndose a una supuesta inconveniencia de la conformación y funciones asignadas por la Ley, al Consejo Nacional de Áreas de Conservación, debido a la cantidad excesiva de sus miembros y más aún al señalar reparo a la participación de los Directores de las Áreas de Conservación en el mismo. En palabras del propio jerarca se dice lo siguiente: “Sobra decir, que esta concepción es el resultado de todo un proceso de maduración del ordenamiento jurídico ambiental costarricense: Ley de Conservación de la Vida Silvestre; Ley Orgánica del Ambiente: Ley de Biodiversidad, Ley Forestal; así como un impresionante número de decretos, acuerdos y actos administrativos.
Indica el jerarca en dicho oficio: (...) Los detractores de la ley de biodiversidad y de otras leyes existentes y vigentes, pretenden de mala fe, desvirtuar el modelo de participación que propone la ley de Biodiversidad basada en criterios técnicos claros y precisos, achacándole vicios y falencias, antes de que este modelo empiece a operar, Estos detractores, son los que han inducido a error a esta Contraloría General de la Republica, pues le han ocultado información y hechos de relevancia, que de una u otra manera pudiesen haber cambiado las conclusiones del informe emitido por el órgano contralor .... El Jerarca del MINAET indica que: - ... Con esta posición, estos detractores no solo actúan de manera irresponsable y en total abuso de sus facultades, sino que además pretenden desestabilizar nuestro país con la política represiva”. Señalan que el informe de la Contraloría General de la República, omite indicar, que parte de los problemas que se presentan para una gestión óptima del SINAC y por ende del MINAET, se debe básicamente a los siguientes puntos: a) Carencia o poca claridad en la definición legal de las categorías de manejo, pese a que éstas están definidas por Ley de manera muy clara.
Esto ha llevado a la administración, a lo largo de los años, a cambiar las reglas del juego y de interpretación de la legislación vigente seg ún sea el Ministro de tumo, de manera constante a los habitantes de las zonas costeras de nuestro país, generando inseguridad jurídica, abusos y caos. b) Desconocimiento e interpretación errónea de la legislación vigente y constantes cambios interpretativos de las leyes ambientales del país. c) La incapacidad de coordinar la aplicación de las leyes ambientales y su implementación en forma armonizada con las otras instituciones del país, dando largas a la planificación del ordenamiento territorial integral en materia de ASP. Lo anterior, debido a intereses muy particulares de grupos extremistas ambientales y otros de diversos intereses que impiden mediante componendas legales articuladas en diferentes niveles la realización y ejecución de este proceso de descentralización y participación ciudadana.
Esta situación, ha impedido priorizar dentro de la agenda nacional políticas claras y coordinadas en materia ASP. El resultado ha sido, dicen, que se ha estrangulado la capacidad a lo interno de las Áreas de Conservación para realizar acciones concretas de protección de los recursos naturales, debido a la centralización con que se quiere administrar el sistema por parte de un pequeño grupo de personas que pretenden ignorar el nuevo entorno en materia ambiental. Según lo indica textualmente el Jerarca del MINAET: Resulta muy contradictorio y preocupante, que la Contraloría General de la República, tenga el criterio que el CONAC y CORAC no deben operar con las funciones dadas por ley, lo cual dista mucho de la función otorgada por ley al órgano contralor. De hecho la Contraloría General de la República en su informe, tácitamente ignora estos órganos y le solicita a otros no competentes a realizar y ejecutar funciones que no le corresponden por ley, lo cual es mucho más grave.
Apuntan que, como puede apreciar esta honorable Sala Constitucional, las victimas de todas estas interpretaciones y abusos, de la Contraloría General De La Republica, Procuraduría General de la República y el Estado Costarricense, son las mismas comunidades asentadas en las áreas en cuestión desde mucho antes que hubiese alguna categoría de manejo. El articulo 50 de la Constitución Política de Costa Rica indica que el Estado procurará el mayor bienestar a todos los habitantes del país, organizando y estimulando la producción y el más adecuado reparto de la riqueza. Toda persona tiene derecho a un ambiente sano y ecológicamente equilibrado. Por ello, está legitimada para denunciar los actos que infrinjan ese derecho y para reclamar la reparación del daño causado. Argumentan también que nos encontramos ante varios actos de la Administración Pública violatorios de todos los principios elementales que deben regir las relaciones del Estado con un administrado o como en este caso con muchos administrados.
En lo que atañe a la violación al principio de irretroactividad de los actos administrativos, aducen que, conforme lo determina la Ley General de la Administración Pública (LGAP), un acto administrativo no puede producir efectos contra el administrado de manera retroactiva. Además, argumentan que en los artículos 30 y 41 de la Constitución Política, se consagran una serie de garantías fundamentales, de carácter instrumental y procesal, que son de observación obligatoria cuando se relaciona un administrado con el Estado. Nuestras comunidades han sido victima del engaño y el abuso por parte del Estado, por lo que, han tenido que invertir tiempo y recursos en defenderse de instrucciones giradas desde San José, en detrimento de los más sagrados derechos. Apuntan que es claro que los informes que emite el ente Contralor en la materia y que tanto defiende el SITRAMINAE, los hace basados en criterios parciales, sin bases ni estudios técnicos, desconociendo la historia de la zona en lo referente al asentamiento urbano, ignorando totalmente la legislación vigente y cuestionando procedimientos e instruyendo ilegalmente, violentando la misma ley vigente.
La creación de cualquier área protegida contempla obligatoria y necesariamente la presencia de seres humanos dentro del mismo. La Organización de las Naciones Unidas, principal fuente formal en materia de derechos humanos y derecho internacional público, define al desarrollo humano como "la ampliación de las opciones para todas las personas de una sociedad. Esto significa que hombres y mujeres están en el centro del proceso de desarrollo. También significa 'protección de las oportunidades en la vida de las futuras generaciones y los sistemas naturales de los que depende la vida en su totalidad (Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo, Informe sobre Desarrollo Humano 1996)'. Por consiguiente, el propósito fundamental del desarrollo es la creación de un ámbito posibilitante en que todos puedan disfrutar de vidas largas saludables y creativas. El crecimiento económico es un medio para el desarrollo humano".
El Caribe en general y en especial el Caribe Sur, no ha podido históricamente liberarse de un régimen de inseguridad en todos los aspectos, hoy ya más claro el de la inseguridad jurídica, pues, es una zona a la que constantemente se le cambian las reglas del juego por parte del Estado. Todo lo contrario, la filosofía de crecimiento y de dotación de calidad de vida de gran cantidad de gobiernos centrales y locales, durante muchos años, no han favorecido el desarrollo humano del Caribe. Con esta actitud del Estado, alegan, se está condenando a esta provincia y a los pobladores y habitantes de dicha zona, a la inseguridad en todos sus aspectos condenándolos a la pobreza de manera perpetua. El desarrollo humano sostenible debe incluir necesariamente un claro balance y un muy delicado equilibrio entre la reducción de la pobreza, la creación de empleos, la protección del medio ambiente, y promover el progreso para todos los seres humanos en igualdad de condiciones y sin discriminación de ningún tipo.
Esto precisamente, fue tutelado celosamente por el MINAE y las autoridades competentes, mediante el instrumento de la zonificación que estableció no solo un ordenamiento, sino que consistió en un estudio serio, partiendo de lo más sagrado e importante: lograr equilibrio entre el desarrollo humano y el medio ambiente, pues la misma Ley, estableció la creación de los Refugios de Vida Silvestre (diferentes categorías), en el entendido que el ser humano era el eje central de los mismos en armonía con el medio ambiente, en donde los mismos pobladores aceptaron voluntariamente que sus tierras se afectaran en aras de mantener una total armonía con el medio ambiente y contribuir a su protección. Como es claro, arguyen que, sus poblaciones tienen derechos adquiridos históricamente de previo a cualquier legislación que pretenda desarraigarlos e ignorar sus derechos. Dicen que cuando esta Ley se encontraba en trámite en la Asamblea Legislativa, la iniciativa parlamentaria se justificó en lo medular, en la necesidad de dar una solución temporal ante el caos, debido a que el Estado requiere tiempo para tomar las medidas óptimas para el ordenamiento territorial en la Zona Marítimo Terrestre, Zona Fronteriza y Patrimonio Natural del Estado.
Se indicó además que en la atención de la regularización territorial de las regiones objeto de moratoria, era necesario atender la realidad particular que se vive en cada una de las áreas específicas y existían varios proyectos de ley que estaban siendo analizados en la corriente legislativa, imponiéndose otorgar el espacio necesario al Parlamento, para una discusión adecuada de cada una de estas iniciativas. Lo anterior, ha sido igualmente externado a esta Honorable Sala por parte del MINAE. En este marco, el Poder Ejecutivo ha fijado como una de sus metas, en el Plan Nacional de Desarrollo, el ordenamiento territorial entendido este como la expresión espacial de la pol ítica económica, social, cultural y ecológica de la Nación, que establece un enfoque interdisciplinario y global del desarrollo y que permite integrar el abordaje de temas como competitividad económica, sostenibilidad ambiental y cohesión social.
El Estado ha definido una serie de medidas a implementar, sin embargo, las mismas requieren acciones a largo plazo. Como parte de este proceso de implementación, se ha venido trabajando en varias leyes especiales, así como en planes de ordenamiento territorial que se encuentran en trámite y que podrían determinar que en la mayoría de estas zonas hay un uso conforme del suelo entre lo que se determinó en el plan regulador y el uso actual de la zona. En la atención de la regularización territorial de la Zona Fronteriza y Patrimonio Natural del estado, es necesario atender la realidad particular que se vive en cada una de las específicas áreas, por lo que, en este momento existen varios proyectos de ley que están siendo analizados en la corriente legislativa, imponiéndose otorgar el espacio necesario al Poder Legislativo, para una discusión técnica y legal seria y profunda de cada una de estas iniciativas.
El Poder Ejecutivo ha establecido un plazo perentorio para buscar una solucionar problema social que existe dentro de estas áreas, debido a sus mismos abusos y desórdenes en contra las comunidades que habitan dichas zonas desde mucho antes de la promulgación de leyes para la protección del ambiente. En este aspecto, la medida adoptada no implica por si misma, la desatención de la protección y conservación del recurso natural por parte del Ministerio, pero evidentemente, el proceso de ordenamiento territorial no se da de la noche a la mañana, como sí se presenta la problemática social de practicar los desalojos y los derribos de las familias que tienen su vida construida en las zonas especiales. De ahí que, ante la imperiosa necesidad de dar una solución temporal, entre tanto se puedan tomar las medidas óptimas para el ordenamiento territorial de estas zonas, es que el Poder ejecutivo propuso que durante el plazo de 24 meses no se aplique el desalojo y derribo o demolición de obras, actividades y proyectos en la Zona Marítimo Terrestre, Zona Fronteriza y Patrimonio Natural del Estado.
De conformidad con las normas citadas y las consideraciones expuestas, solicitan que se declare sin lugar totalmente la acción de inconstitucionalidad, toda vez que los artículos impugnados no se contraponen con los artículos 33 y 50 de la Constitución.
ARTÍCULO 129.- Las leyes son obligatorias y surten efectos desde el día que ellas designen; a falta de este requisito, diez días después de su publicación en el Diario Oficial. Nadie puede alegar ignorancia de la ley, salvo en los casos que la misma autorice. No tiene eficacia la renuncia de las leyes en general, ni la especial de las de interés público. Los actos y convenios contra las leyes prohibitivas serán nulos, si las mismas leyes no disponen otra cosa. La ley no queda abrogada ni derogada sino por otra posterior; contra su observancia no podrá alegarse desuso, costumbre ni práctica en contrario. Por vía de referéndum, el pueblo podrá abrogarla o derogarla, de conformidad con el artículo 105 de esta Constitución ”. De la lectura de estas disposiciones constitucionales, en relación con el principio de legalidad contenido en el numeral 11 de la Carta Fundamental, se desprende un carácter vigente y vinculante de las normas que fueron emitidas por el legislador y, que rigen para todos los efectos, especialmente cuando se trata de la protección de los bienes medioambientales, que conforman el patrimonio de la Nación.
En ese sentido, las normas de la Ley 9073 se apartan de estos principios constitucionales, en tanto implican una suspensión de contenido –discrecional – de las potestades que otorga la Constitución y la Ley para efectos de hacer cumplir lo dispuesto en una serie de normas de interés general, por medio de las cuales se establece como una obligación del Estado (artículo 50 de la Constitución Política), y una prerrogativa de todos los costarricenses, ejercer su función de vigilancia y policía frente a las acciones públicas y privadas que por acción u omisión afectan el derecho a un ambiente sano y ecológicamente equilibrado. De tal suerte, más que la simple suspensión de actuaciones administrativas o judiciales tendientes al desalojo y demolición de construcciones que se encuentran en zonas especiales, el proyecto de ley determina la suspensión temporal de los efectos prohibitivos y directos de una serie de normas de orden público que se encuentran en plena vigencia (que no han sido derogadas de manera expresa ni tácita), en las cuales se establece, una imposibilidad directa de que sujetos particulares, usurpen, afecten o se apropien de los bienes del dominio público, como lo son la zona marítimo terrestre, las zonas fronterizas y el patrimonio natural del Estado.
Así las cosas, el régimen de protección de estos territorios, increpa, se encuentra contemplado en diferentes leyes especiales. Sobre el particular se puede observar las resoluciones 4587 de las 15:45 horas del 5 de agosto de 1997, 16629-2012 de las 16:31 horas del 28 de noviembre de 2012, ambas emitidas por la Sala Constitucional. En su resolución 3430-2013 de las 14:30 horas del 13 de marzo de 2013 la Sala Constitucional, resolvió un recurso de amparo que se planteó con oportunidad del desalojo y la demolición de una construcción que se encuentra ubicada en la zona marítimo terrestre del Cantón de Osa. En esta oportunidad y a pesar de la vigencia de la Ley de Protección de los Ocupantes de Zonas Calificadas como Especiales (ahora cuestionada), el Tribunal Constitucional reiteró en todo sentido las características de tutela que son propias de los bienes que integran el dominio público, y las competencias, de las autoridades Administrativas para efectos de hacer cumplir sus deberes de protección para con los mismos.
Por ello, se ha dicho que esos bienes son inalienables, imprescriptibles e inembargables, no pueden hipotecarse ni son susceptibles de gravamen alguno por estar fuera del comercio de los hombres y, por ello, tales bienes no pueden ser objeto de posesión, de tal manera que se puede adquirir un derecho a su aprovechamiento, pero no un derecho de propiedad sobre ellos. Señala que este mismo Tribunal ha dicho en su amplia jurisprudencia referida al tema, que el régimen patrio de los bienes de dominio público, como es la zona marítimo terrestre, los coloca fuera del comercio de los hombres y, por ello, los permisos que se otorguen serán siempre a título precario y revocables por la Administración unilateralmente, cuando razones de necesidad o de interés general así lo señalan. También se ha dicho que tratándose de ocupantes de hecho de bienes de dominio público, como ocurre en este caso, no se requiere la observancia de un proceso o procedimiento, ya sea judicial o administrativo, pues la acción directa de la Administración (interdictum propium) viene a sustituir a los interdictos en estrados y no se hace necesario seguir el procedimiento previsto para los desalojos administrativos.
Por lo anterior, se tiene que la corporación municipal recurrida está facultada para desalojar y por mutuo propio, a los ocupantes de bienes de dominio público ubicados dentro de la “Zona Marítimo Terrestre”, y a demoler las edificaciones que allí se encuentren como ocurrió en este caso en particular.”. De tal suerte, alega como evidente que la Ley cuestionada en ningún sentido afecta la naturaleza demanial de estos territorios, como tampoco deroga las normas legales y principios constitucionales que protegen al dominio público como bienes medioambientales. No obstante, dice, sí permite la permanencia de situaciones que son contrarias al interés público, y faculta – a una cantidad indeterminada de personas – iniciar o continuar con su situación de ilegalidad, sancionable incluso con responsabilidades de carácter administrativo, civil y penal, lo que redunda en una violación a los principios de legalidad, vigencia, vinculatoriedad, fuerza, eficacia y autoridad de la ley, conforme a los artículos 11, 28, 33 y 129 de la Constitución Política.
En conclusión, es consciente de la problemática social y económica que subyace en muchas de las situaciones que propiciaron en su momento la emisión de la Ley 9073; la relevancia que presentan estos temas en la vida nacional, así como de la necesidad de buscar alternativas técnica y jurídicamente viables para abordar la problemática social que ha propiciado por décadas el aprovechamiento privativo de los espacios públicos. Sin embargo, considera que de forma paralela al desarrollo de las posibles soluciones, resulta imprescindible cumplir con el marco base de juridicidad que protege a los bienes que conforman el patrimonio público, e impulsar medidas permanentes de ordenamiento territorial que resulten conformes con el bloque de legalidad nacional e internacional que rige en la materia, de manera tal que se permita alcanzar los objetivos propuestos. En este caso, nos encontramos ante una legislación, ayuna de contenido técnico, de corte temporal, paralela, alternativa e incluso contradictoria con la normativa que se encuentra vigente, que lejos de beneficiar la protección y el ordenamiento adecuado de estos territorios, fomenta el desarrollo desordenado, a partir de tratos desiguales para con los costarricenses que se han mostrado respetuosos de las prohibiciones legales ya existentes, provocando igual o mayor inseguridad jurídica entre los operadores del derecho y los actuales ocupantes de esas zonas, al tiempo que se incrementan las situaciones de irrespeto y desaplicación progresiva de las regulaciones vigentes que involucran desde antaño la protección efectiva de los bienes de dominio público, como parte del patrimonio de las actuales y futuras generaciones.
Dicho de otro modo, estima que el punto de partida para validar una solución jurídica como la que ahora se trata se acometer (por medio de una serie de proyectos de ley paralelos), indudablemente, pasa primero por respetar las disposiciones jurídicas preexistentes, a fin de llegar a una solución acorde con los fines perseguidos por el Estado de Derecho en cumplimiento del marco de legalidad, constitucionalidad y convencionalidad actual. Ahora bien, las normas de la Ley 9073, indica, devienen inconstitucionales en tanto desatienden las normas y principios tanto en el plano nacional como internacional y generan una serie de regulaciones desiguales, contradictorias, temporales y paralelas, que se apartan sustancialmente de los alcances de la normativa ya existente, en contraposición con el principio de legalidad y que afectan la protección de una serie de bienes que son esenciales y estratégicos para el desarrollo nacional por cuanto forman parte de la Hacienda Pública, de vital importancia para el progreso de Costa Rica (artículos 50, 69, 89 121 inciso 14) y 183 constitucionales).
En ese sentido, considera el órgano contralor que la solución no se logra con la legalización sistemática de situaciones irregulares por medio de la generación de normas especiales para efectos de beneficiar a sectores –de una manera implícita, general e indiscriminada– a través de la aceptación genérica de situaciones irregulares, sobre las cuales además no se cuenta con datos serios sobre la cantidad de ocupantes y la magnitud de las consecuencias directas e indirectas que se producirán en el ambiente. Deben por ende plantearse soluciones integrales y permanentes que tomen en cuenta lo dispuesto en el ordenamiento jurídico costarricense, tanto a nivel nacional como internacional, así como las diversas alternativas a fin de lograr un sano equilibrio para el desarrollo nacional, considerando el adecuado resguardo y protección de los bienes que integran el dominio público, y que conforman parte de la Hacienda Pública. Bajo esta tesitura, se considera que la Ley 9073 es inconstitucional en su totalidad.
Redacta la Magistrada Hernández López; y,
CONSIDERANDO:
I.SOBRE LA ADMISIBILIDAD.- A tenor del artículo 75, párrafo segundo, de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional, no será necesario el caso previo pendiente de resolución cuando por la naturaleza del asunto no exista lesión individual y directa, o se trate de la defensa de intereses difusos que atañen a la colectividad en su conjunto. Sobre el particular, este Tribunal Constitucional, en el Voto No. 8239-01 de las 16:07 horas del 14 de agosto de 2001, se refirió a los intereses difusos bajo los siguientes términos: "(…) De acuerdo con el primero de los supuestos previstos por el párrafo 2° del artículo 75 de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional, la norma cuestionada no debe ser susceptible de aplicación concreta, que permita luego la impugnación del acto aplicativo y su consecuente empleo como asunto base. (...) En segundo lugar, se prevé la posibilidad de acudir en defensa de intereses difusos (...) Los intereses difusos, aunque de difícil definición y más difícil identificación, no pueden ser en nuestra ley -como ya lo ha dicho esta Sala- los intereses meramente colectivos; ni tan difusos que su titularidad se confunda con la de la comunidad nacional como un todo, ni tan concretos que frente a ellos resulten identificados o fácilmente identificables personas determinadas, o grupos personalizados, cuya legitimación derivaría, no de los intereses difusos, sino de los corporativos que atañen a una comunidad en su conjunto.
Se trata entonces de intereses individuales, pero a la vez, diluidos en conjuntos más o menos extensos y amorfos de personas que comparten un interés y, por ende reciben un perjuicio, actual o potencial, más o menos igual para todos, por lo que con acierto se dice que se trata de intereses iguales de los conjuntos que se encuentran en determinadas circunstancias y, a la vez, de cada una de ellas. Es decir, los intereses difusos participan de una doble naturaleza, ya que son a la vez colectivos -por ser comunes a una generalidad- e individuales, por lo que pueden ser reclamados en tal carácter. (...) En síntesis, los intereses difusos son aquellos cuya titularidad pertenece a grupos de personas no organizadas formalmente, pero unidas a partir de una determinada necesidad social, una característica física, su origen étnico, una determinada orientación personal o ideológica, el consumo de un cierto producto, etc. (…)".
En el presente asunto, la parte accionante aduce que su legitimación proviene por vía del control de constitucionalidad abstracto e invocan la defensa de intereses difusos, toda vez que, acuden en resguardo del derecho a la información. Por consiguiente, tales circunstancias configuran a favor de la parte gestionante una legitimación directa para la interposición del presente proceso por invocar la defensa de intereses que atañen a la colectividad nacional en su conjunto. Corolario, resulta admisible el conocimiento y resolución de la presente acción de inconstitucionalidad por vía del control abstracto.
Con vista en el escrito de interposición de la acción que nos ocupa, la Asociación Sindical de Trabajadores del Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía, se cuestiona -en primer término- la constitucionalidad de los artículos 1, 2, 3, 5 y 6 de la Ley de Protección a los Ocupantes de Zonas clasificadas como Especiales (Ley No. 9073 del 19 de septiembre de 2012), siendo que posteriormente se pide la declaratoria de inconstitucionalidad a la totalidad de las disposiciones de dicha Ley, invocando para tal efecto la existencia de un interés difuso, fundado en la violación de los derechos fundamentales reconocidos – entre muchos otros– en el numeral 50 de la Constitución Política. En concreto, la parte accionante aduce la existencia de una lesión al derecho a disfrutar de un ambiente sano y ecológicamente equilibrado en perjuicio de todos los costarricenses, dado que, por medio de la aplicación de la citada Ley se transgrede el ordenamiento jurídico suspendiendo -por un plazo de 2 años- la aplicación de las normas que regulan de una manera restrictiva el régimen especial de protección del que gozan la zona marítima terrestre, el Patrimonio Natural del Estado y las zonas fronterizas, desde el punto de vista de su condición de bienes integrantes de dominio público y con una importancia trascendental desde el punto de vista medioambiental.
En su literalidad, los preceptos cuestionados establecen lo siguiente:
“(…) LEY DE PROTECCIÓN A LOS OCUPANTES DE ZONAS CLASIFICADAS COMO ESPECIALES ARTÍCULO 1.- Por el plazo de veinticuatro meses, se suspenderá el desalojo de personas, demolición de obras, suspensión de actividades y proyectos en la zona marítimo-terrestre, zona fronteriza y patrimonio natural del Estado.
ARTÍCULO 2.- La disposición prevista en el artículo anterior no excluye dictar las medidas cautelares judiciales o administrativas, ni la ejecución de resoluciones judiciales o administrativas en firme, en ambos casos cuando se determine la comisión de daño ambiental o peligro o amenaza de daño al medio ambiente.
Las resoluciones administrativas referidas en el párrafo anterior serán exclusivamente las emitidas por el Tribunal Administrativo Ambiental o por el ministro de Ambiente y Energía.
ARTÍCULO 3.- Cuando se trate de zonas declaradas patrimonio natural del Estado, únicamente el ministro de Ambiente y Energía podrá desaplicar la moratoria, mediante la fundamentación técnica pertinente, cuando se determine la comisión de daño ambiental o peligro o amenaza de daño al medio ambiente.
ARTÍCULO 4.- En ningún caso, la aplicación de esta ley favorecerá la constitución de derechos a favor de los ocupantes a título precario de las zonas objeto de la moratoria. Asimismo, los ocupantes a título precario no podrán realizar modificaciones en las obras, las actividades y los proyectos ubicados en las zonas objeto de esta moratoria, salvo aquellas necesarias en cumplimiento de orden sanitaria emitida por autoridad competente.
ARTÍCULO 5.- Durante la vigencia de la moratoria, el Estado no deberá permitir que se den nuevas ocupaciones en las zonas referidas en el artículo 1 de esta ley.
ARTÍCULO 6.- Se autoriza a las municipalidades, en las zonas de su competencia, a aplicar la moratoria en los términos establecidos en la presente ley, previo acuerdo razonado del concejo municipal respectivo.
ARTÍCULO 7.- Durante la vigencia de esta moratoria, el Estado deberá tomar las medidas necesarias para el ordenamiento de las zonas referidas en la presente ley.
Rige a partir de su publicación.
Dado en la Presidencia de la República, San José, a los diecinueve días del mes de setiembre del año dos mil doce.”
La parte accionante alega que con la normativa cuestionada, se provoca la violación de: el principio de tutela efectiva de los bienes demaniales y la potestad reivindicatoria por parte del Estado; el principio precautorio y el in dubio pro natura; el principio de no regresión de contenidos; el principio de interdicción de la arbitrariedad; los principios de igualdad, razonabilidad y proporcionalidad; el derecho de procurar por un ambiente sano y ecológicamente equilibrado; el principio de no regresión en materia de derechos fundamentales, y; el principio de intangibilidad de la zona marítimo terrerestre.
SOBRE LOS BIENES AFECTOS AL RÉGIMEN DE DOMINIO PÚBLICO. El artículo primero de la normativa cuestionada, establece una moratoria de 2 años, en los cuales, se suspende el desalojo de personas, la demolición de obras y, la suspensión de actividades y proyectos en la zona marítimo terrestre, en la zona fronteriza y en el patrimonio natural de Estado. Acorde con la legislación que rige la materia, las zonas allí señaladas, se encuentran afectas al ré gimen de dominio público. Por dominio público, esta Sala ha entendido el conjunto de bienes sujeto a un régimen jurídico especial y distinto al que rige el dominio privado, que además de pertenecer o estar bajo la administración de personas jurídicas públicas, están afectados o destinados a fines de utilidad pública, lo que se manifiesta en el uso directo o indirecto que toda persona pueda hacer de ellos. La doctrina, ha reconocido al dominio público bajo diferentes acepciones, como bienes dominicales, cosas públicas, bienes públicos o bienes demaniales. Sobre el particular, resulta aclaratorio, para estos efectos, retomar lo considerado por este Tribunal Constitucional en lo que atañe a los bienes de dominio público, en el Voto No. 02988-99 de las 11:57 horas del 23 de abril de 2014, que en su literalidad establece:
“(…) III.- Consideraciones preliminares. De previo a entrar a examinar el fondo de la acción, es preciso hacer algunas consideraciones sobre las zonas protegidas que se pretenden titular en la norma de estudio (franja fronteriza, reservas forestales, refugios nacionales de vida silvestre y zonas protectoras). Nuestra legislación crea un sistema en que la afectación se torna en el elemento primordial para la inclusión de un bien al dominio público, por lo tanto será de dominio público todo bien destinado por ley, o por un acto administrativo cuanto ésta lo autorice. Cuando un bien es integrado al régimen de dominio público, adquiere una serie de características esenciales como la inalienabilidad, la imprescriptibilidad y la inembargabilidad. De estas condiciones es que estos bienes no son expropiables, por cuanto ésta implicaría la enajenación y son inalienables. Asimismo, la usucapión tampoco es un medio para adquirirlos, las cosas inalienables por estar fuera del comercio de los hombres, no son sujetos de posesión por particulares, y por tanto, son imprescriptibles en tanto conserven tal carácter o el destino de utilidad pública a que están afectadas.
"El dominio público se encuentra integrado por bienes que manifiestan, por voluntad comunidad, al interés público. Son los llamados bienes dominicales, bienes denominiales, bienes o cosas públicas o bienes públicos que no pertenecen individualmente a los particulares y que están destinados a un uso público y sometidos a un régimen especial, fuera del comercio de los hombres. Es decir, afectados por su propia naturaleza y vocación. En consecuencia estos bienes pertenecen al Estado en el sentido más amplio del concepto, están afectados al servicio que prestan y que invariablemente es esencial en virtud de norma expresa. Notas características de estos bienes, es que son inalienables, imprescriptibles, inembargables, no pueden hipotecarse ni ser susceptibles de gravamen en los términos del Derecho Civil y la acción administrativa sustituye a los interdictos para recuperar el dominio. Como están fuera del comercio, estos bienes no pueden ser objeto de posesión, aunque se puede adquirir un derecho al aprovechamiento, aunque no un derecho a la propiedad." (Sala Constitucional, sentencia No. 2306-91 de las catorce horas cuarenta y cinco minutos del 6 de noviembre de 1991).
La conformación de áreas protegidas bajo las categorías de Reserva Forestal, Refugio de Vida Silvestre Privado o Mixto, Parques Nacionales, Reservas Biológicas y Zonas Protectoras, conlleva a la imposición de un Régimen de propiedad P ública bajo la categoría de Patrimonio Forestal del Estado que cambia ipso facto la naturaleza jurídica de los terrenos incluidos dentro del área, esto es de un régimen de privado que se manifiesta en diversas formas o estado de tenencia a un régimen público de propiedad Estatal. El artículo 13 de la Ley Forestal No.7575 establece que el patrimonio natural del Estado estará constituido por los bosques y terrenos forestales de las reservas nacionales, de las áreas declaradas inalienables, de las fincas inscritas a su nombre y de las pertenecientes a municipalidades, instituciones autónomas y demás organismos de la Administración Pública, excepto inmuebles que garanticen operaciones crediticias con el Sistema Bancario nacional e ingresen a formar parte de su patrimonio. En el mismo sentido, el artículo 14 de la misma Ley dispone que los terrenos forestales y bosques que constituyen ese patrimonio natural del Estado, son inembargables e inalienables; que su posesión por los particulares no causará derecho alguno a su favor y que la acción reivindicatoria del Estado por estos terrenos es imprescriptible.
En cuanto a las reservas forestales existe una gran necesidad de proteger las especies maderables no solo por el valor en sí de las mismas desde el punto de vista económico, sino también porque algunos de ellos tienen gran valor científico y son estas especies vegetales parte de los recursos naturales renovables pero que dejarán de serlo en la medida en que se vayan extinguiendo.
Respecto a la franja fronteriza, tenemos que la Ley de Terrenos Baldíos, No. 13 de 10 de enero de 1939, en el artículo 10 dispuso: "Son asimismo inalienables los terrenos comprendidos en una zona de dos kilómetros de ancho, a lo largo de la frontera con Nicaragua y con Panamá". Dicha protección nace a raíz de que nuestras zonas fronterizas siguen siendo consideradas indispensables para el país, no sólo por razones de defensa de la soberanía del país, ante la importancia que tiene reservarlas como zonas estratégicas para la seguridad de la Nación, sino también por su relevancia desde el punto de vista de la protección del patrimonio natural del Estado. Las zonas fronterizas por su posición y cobertura se convierten en un área sumamente importante para la protección del medio ambiente como territorio, una zona de amortiguamiento indispensable para la comunicación de la flora y fauna, recursos hídricos y del ecosistema imperante en determinadas regiones del país, y por ende, el interés y la necesidad del Estado costarricense de regular y proteger los recursos naturales existentes hoy en día, y que sin el control y la limitación en cuanto a su disposición por parte de las autoridades competentes, pondrían en grave peligro el derecho a un ambiente sano.
Es por ello que a través de instrumentos legales tanto nacionales como extranjeros se pretende proteger estas zonas, como en el caso de la comisión centroamericana a nivel regional, que aparte del convenio constitutivo y el protocolo, firmó con Nicaragua en el año 1992 el convenio centroamericano de biodiversidad, con el fin de ir conformando un corredor biológico centroamericano, y el Consejo Centroamericano de Bosques creado en Guatemala, el cual pretende tomar acciones conjuntas que establezcan medidas de coordinación en relación con los recursos disponibles en la zona fronteriza norte de nuestro país y las otras fronteras de los países centroamericanos. Fue en virtud del Decreto No. 22692-MIRENEM del 15 de febrero de 1994, reformado por el Decreto No.23248-MIRENEM del 20 de abril del mismo año, en su artículo 1 que se declaró Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre al corredor fronterizo conformado por los terrenos comprendidos en una zona de 2000 metros de ancho a lo largo de la frontera con Nicaragua.
Declaratoria que obedeció a que la zona es un importante corredor biológico entre el Area de Conservación Tortuguero, los Humedales de Tamborcito y Marenque, el Refugio de Vida Silvestre Caño Negro y la Reserva Forestal El Jardín.
En este mismo sentido, los refugios de vida silvestre son definidos en la Ley Forestal No.7032 del 7 de abril de 1986, en el artículo 35 inciso ch), como "aquellos bosques y terrenos cuyo uso principal sea la protección, conservación, incremento y manejo de especies de flora y fauna silvestre." Dichos sitios tienen como fin primordial la protección de las especies de flora y fauna en extinción y que poseen entre otros valores, un gran valor científico, de ahí el interés de conservarlos. Con su conservación se pretende garantizar la perpetuidad de las especies de vida silvestre, sus poblaciones y hábitats, y dar oportunidad para realizar actividades de tipo científico, educativo y recreativo, cuando no vayan en detrimento de los objetivos de cada refugio. Dentro de los Refugios Nacionales de Vida Silvestre, la biota puede ser muy variada dependiendo de la diversidad de asociaciones naturales existentes dentro del refugio, según la variedad de condiciones geográficas locales, lo que significa apreciar las diferencias que provienen de una diversidad en condiciones geológicas, edáficas, topográficas y de actividad animal y humana, de ahí que se haga necesario la protección legal de estas áreas y de las demás constituyentes de la propiedad agraria forestal.
En nuestro país, como ya se ha mencionado, el interés por la protección de los recursos forestales data de años atrás, así por ejemplo en decreto No. 5 del 26 de junio de 1945 se hace manifiesto esta tendencia a la protección de las tierras forestales y de los recursos forestales derivados de estas, no solo por el valor de los recursos como tales, sino por la función que los mismos desempeñan dentro de lo que son en este caso las zonas protectoras. El Estado se interesa en ellas por adquirir tierras como protección forestal, para determinar si por sus condiciones escénicas, culturales, científicas o protectoras, constituyen un bien que debe ser preservado como terreno de valor incalculable. En razón de esta valoración, el Estado crea las denominadas zonas protectoras, las cuales vienen a constituir áreas boscosas o de aptitud forestal en que la conservación del bosque y la conservación de los terrenos forestales, está inspirada en propósitos de protección de suelos, o de mantener y regular el régimen hidrológico, el clima, el medio ambiente.
Son aptas para la protección de los suelos, por cuanto las raíces de los árboles sujetan y retienen la capa vegetal y las hojas que de ella caen cubren el suelo por donde corre el agua y evita el arrastre de partículas de tierra, es decir detienen o por lo menos disminuyen el proceso de erosión, el cual acarrea consigo el desequilibrio nutritivo del suelo al arrastrar nutrientes importantes de la tierra, necesarios para el crecimiento de las plantas. Las zonas protectoras juegan un papel preponderante en el equilibrio del medio ambiente entendido este como el conjunto de cosas que rodean al individuo tales como: clima, suelo, luz, viento, lluvia, alimentación, frío, calor, hábitat, etc. y en el equilibrio del ecosistema por la relación de intercambio que se da entre la parte viviente de la naturaleza y la parte inerte de la misma. De ahí que deba protegerse el suelo, la regulación del régimen hidrológico, la conservación del ambiente, y la de las cuencas hidrográficas.
Estas zonas son creadas por ley o vía decreto del Poder Ejecutivo y en ellas, también por disposición legal, está prohibido efectuar labores agrícolas o de destrucción de la vegetación. Dentro de las zonas protegidas quedan comprendidos los terrenos que se encuentran situados en las reservas nacionales, cierta zona a lo largo de los ríos, una faja a uno y otro lado de la depresión máxima de las cuencas hidrológicas, los terrenos que bordean los manantiales que nacen en los cerros y también los que nacen en terrenos planos, cierta área en la ribera de los ríos arroyos, lagos, lagunas, o embalses naturales (…)
IIo.- PROTECCION AL AMBIENTE SANO Y EQULIBRADO: En lo que interesa a este asunto, sea, la protección de los derechos ambientales, esta Sala en el ya citado pronunciamiento número 3705-93, afirmó:
"Resulta importante para la Sala elaborar, de previo a las consideraciones estrictamente de fondo, un análisis general que establezca el marco constitucional y las condiciones e intereses que hoy en día despierta la conservación del ambiente, pues su estudio se constituye en una novedad de esta última centuria. Es primordial recordar que durante muchos siglos el hombre creyó que debía dominar las fuerzas de la naturaleza y ponerlas a su servicio, ya que se consideraba, en alguna medida, que los recursos naturales eran inagotables y que la industrialización era per se un objetivo deseable, sin que se evaluara cuál sería el impacto de la actividad económica sobre el ambiente. De hecho, la división entre recursos naturales renovables y no renovables es moderna, pues aún la ciencia económica, que se preocupa de la administración del entorno para lograr la satisfacción al máximo de las necesidades humanas con recursos limitados, no incorporó el desgaste y deterioro del medio como herramienta del análisis económico, sino hasta en fecha muy reciente...El ambiente, por lo tanto, debe ser entendido como un potencial de desarrollo para utilizarlo adecuadamente, debiendo actuarse de modo integrado en sus relaciones naturales, socioculturales, tecnológicas y de orden político, ya que, en caso contrario, se degrada su productividad para el presente y el futuro y podría ponerse en riesgo el patrimonio de las generaciones venideras.
Los orígenes de los problemas ambientales son complejos y corresponden a una articulación de procesos naturales y sociales en el marco del estilo de desarrollo socioeconómico que adopte el país. Por ejemplo, se producen problemas ambientales cuando las modalidades de de los ecosistemas superior a su capacidad de regeneración, lo que conduce a que amplios sectores de la población resulten perjudicados y se genere un alto costo ambiental y social que redunda en un deterioro de la calidad de vida; pues precisamente el objetivo primordial del uso y protección del ambiente es obtener un desarrollo y evolución favorable al ser humano. La calidad ambiental es un parámetro fundamental de esa calidad de vida; otros parámetros no menos importantes son salud, alimentación, trabajo, vivienda, educación, etc., pero más importante que ello es entender que si bien el hombre tiene el derecho de hacer uso del ambiente para su propio desarrollo, también tiene el deber de protegerlo y preservarlo para el uso de las generaciones presentes y futuras, lo cual no es tan novedoso, porque no es más que la traducción a esta materia, del principio de la "lesión", ya consolidado en el derecho común, en virtud del cual el legítimo ejercicio de un derecho tiene dos límites esenciales: Por un lado, los iguales derechos de los demás y, por el otro, el ejercicio racional y el disfrute útil del derecho mismo..." IIIo.- Esta Sala también ha reconocido, que tanto el derecho a la salud como a un ambiente libre de contaminación, sin el cual el primero no podría hacerse efectivo, son derechos fundamentales, de modo que, es obligación del Estado proveer a su protección, ya sea a través de políticas generales para procurar ese fin o bien, a través de actos concretos por parte de la Administración.
El desarrollo sostenible es una de esas políticas generales que el Estado dicta para ampliar las posibilidades de que todos puedan colmar sus aspiraciones a una vida mejor, incrementando la capacidad de producción o bien, ampliando las posibilidades de llegar a un progreso equitativo entre un crecimiento demográfico o entre éste y los sistemas naturales. Es el desarrollo sostenible, el proceso de transformación en la utilización de los recursos, orientación de las inversiones, canalización del desarrollo tecnológico, cambios institucionales y todo aquello que coadyuve para atender las necesidades humanas del presente y del futuro (…)".
Así las cosas, tenemos que este Tribunal Constitucional ha establecido en sus sentencias, listados ejemplificativos de los bienes que se encuentran afectos al demanio público, entre los cuales destacan, los terrenos que fueron considerados por la Ley No. 9073 como “zonas clasificadas como especiales”. Al respecto, la sentencia No. 2063-2007 de las 14:40 horas del 14 de febrero de 2007 estatuye lo que de seguido se transcribe: “(…) Es así como entran en esta categoría – sin que se constituya en una lista cerrada – la zona marítimo terrestre, el patrimonio forestal o natural del Estado –áreas protegidas– (conformado por parques nacionales, reservas forestales, reservas biológicas, zonas protectoras, refugios de vida silvestre, humedales y monumentos naturales –artículo 32 de la Ley Orgánica del Ambiente, número 7554, de dieciocho de setiembre de mil novecientos noventa y cinco – ), las zonas de protección hidrográfica –artículo 33 de la Ley Forestal – (contiguas a los manantiales, a las riveras de los ríos y lagos), las zonas lim ítrofes (artículo 10 de la Ley de Terrenos Baldíos, número 13, de diez de enero de mil novecientos treinta y nueve), el derecho de vía, las líneas ferroviarias, las reservas indígenas, el patrimonio histórico-arquitectónico, los recursos mineros, el patrimonio arqueológico, etc. Se trata de bienes que, por su vocación y destino están fuera del comercio de los hombres, de manera que son inalienables, imprescriptibles e inembargables, de manera que no es posible su dominio o posesión, ni a título gratuito ni oneroso; no pueden perderse por prescripción, así como tampoco, ganarse por usucapión, de modo que son bienes que conservan su vigencia jurídica permanentemente; y no son susceptibles de embargo; además de que están sujetos al poder de policía, en lo atinente a su aprovechamiento y uso, ya que está condicionado al otorgamiento de las respectivas licencias y permisos y al control y fiscalización de parte la Administración.”.
A mayor abundamiento, a nivel doctrinal, legal y jurisprudencial, se tiene que los bienes de dominio público son aquellos destinados a un uso o servicio público, por lo que, gozan de un régimen de protección con especiales características (imprescriptibles, inembargables e inalienables) –al respecto, oficio de 25 de febrero del 2003, DAGJ-219-2003, de la Contraloría General de la República-. Así, sobre los bienes de dominio público señala que "El dominio público es una técnica de intervención mediante la que se afecta a una finalidad pública determinada prevista por la ley -ya sea el uso o el servicio público, el fomento de la riqueza nacional o la protección y garantía d explotación racional de recursos naturales- ciertos bienes de titularidad pública igualmente previstos por la Constitución o las leyes, dotándoles de un régimen jurídico de protección y utilización de Derecho Administrativo.
En consecuencia, tres son los elementos que configuran la relación jurídica de dominio público. El primero la titularidad pública de los bienes, que la LPE (art.1) quiere definir como propiedad. Pero esta calificación jurídica es lo que menos importa, pues en todo caso se trata de una titularidad dominical de naturaleza sui generis. El segundo lugar, la afectación de los bienes objeto del dominio público a una finalidad de utilidad pública prevista por ley. Este es, como se reconoce por la generalidad de la doctrina, el elemento decisivo. El tercero, consecuencia de los anteriores, la aplicación de un régimen especial administrativo de protección y uso de los bienes". En un sentido similar, se ha orientado la jurisprudencia del Tribunal de lo Contencioso Administrativo, que siguiendo también la línea jurisprudencial vertida por esta Sala ha indicado que estos bienes gozan de un régimen de protección especial, pues, por Ley, cuentan con un destino de interés público y por ello no susceptibles de apropiación privada, así entonces ha indicado ese Tribunal que: "... es un bien de dominio público, y por ende, no sujeto a apropiación privada.
Según Biondo Biondi, son “... bienes demaniales aquellos bienes declarados tales por la ley y que se encuentran en una particular situación jurídica ..." (…) y "... el carácter constante y permanente de los bienes demaniales es la pertenencia al Estado, o bien, a un ente territorial (pueblos, provincias) ... La pertenencia se debe entender en el sentido amplio de titularidad o de genérica correspondencia, además, porque del demanio forman parte los derechos. Es ciertamente un derecho eminente, exclusivo y absoluto y, por tanto, bajo tal aspecto, parangonable al derecho real..." (…). En relación con este mismo tema, la Sala Constitucional en su sentencia No. 5976-93 de 15:42 horas del 16 de noviembre de 1993, refiriéndose a que la regulación de la propiedad dominical encuentra fundamento en el inciso 14), del artículo 121 de la Carta Magna, dispuso: “(…) El dominio público se encuentra integrado por bienes que manifiestan, por voluntad expresa del legislador, un destino especial de servir a la comunidad, al interés público.
Son llamados bienes dominicales, bienes demaniales, bienes o cosas públicas, que no pertenecen individualmente a los particulares y que están destinados a un uso público y sometidos a un régimen especial, fuera del comercio de los hombres. Es decir, afectados por su naturaleza y vocación. En consecuencia, esos bienes pertenecen al Estado en el sentido más amplio del concepto, están afectados al servicio que prestan y que invariablemente es esencial en virtud de norma expresa. Notas características de estos bienes, es que son inalienables, imprescriptibles, inembargables, no pueden hipotecarse ni ser susceptibles de gravamen en los términos del Derecho Civil y la acción administrativa sustituye a los interdictos para recuperar el dominio. Como están fuera del comercio, estos bienes no pueden ser objeto de posesión, aunque se puede adquirir un derecho al aprovechamiento, aunque no un derecho a la propiedad, el permiso de uso es un acto jurídico unilateral que lo dicta la Administración, en el uso de sus funciones y lo que se pone en manos del particular, es el dominio útil del bien, reservándose siempre el Estado, el dominio directo sobre la cosa, la precariedad de todo derecho o permiso de uso, es consustancial a la figura y alude a la posibilidad que la administración, en cualquier momento lo revoque, ya sea por la necesidad del Estado de ocupar plenamente el bien, por la construcción de una obra pública al igual que por razones de seguridad, higiene, estética, todo ello en la medida que si llega a existir una contraposición de intereses entre el fin del bien y el permiso otorgado, debe prevalecer el uso natural de la cosa pública.
En consecuencia, el régimen patrio de los bienes de dominio público (...) los coloca fuera del comercio de los hombres y por ello los permisos que se otorguen serán siempre a título precario y revocables por la Administración, unilateralmente, cuando razones de necesidad o de interés general así lo señalan (…)”. Sustentado en los fundamentos y razonamientos vertidos en este considerando, de seguido, se procederá a efectuar el análisis de constitucionalidad de la normativa de cita.
SOBRE EL PRINCIPIO DE TUTELA EFECTIVA DE LOS BIENES DEMANIALES Y LA POTESTAD REIVINDICATORIA POR PARTE DEL ESTADO. ACERCA DE LA MORATORIA DE DOS AÑOS. Tal y como quedó consignado en el resultando primero de este proceso, así como, en los considerandos precedentes, el accionante reprochó de irrazonable la moratoria de 2 años en la suspensión de desalojos, demolición de obras y suspensión de actividades y proyectos, en la zonas dichas, las cuales se califican en la Ley 9073, como zonas especiales. En este entendido y, por influir el objeto de la Ley impugnada sobre bienes de dominio público, a estos les sería aplicable el principio de autotutela administrativa, por medio del cual, las autoridades estatales que competan pueden actuar en defensa de los bienes demaniales, cuya protección proviene de la normativa vigente. Cabe destacar también que, mediante resolución No. 10578-2007 de las 16:40 horas del 25 de julio de 2007, esta Sala Constitucional señaló lo siguiente: “Ciertamente, el hombre tiene el derecho de hacer uso del ambiente para su propio desarrollo, pero también tiene el correlativo deber de protegerlo y preservarlo para el uso de generaciones presentes y futuras.(…) "el hombre tiene el derecho fundamental a la libertad, la igualdad y el disfrute de condiciones de vida adecuadas en un medio de calidad tal que le permita llevar una vida digna y gozar de bienestar y tiene la solemne obligación de proteger y mejorar el medio para las generaciones presentes y futuras”.
Acorde con el ordinal 50 constitucional, el Estado asume un mandato para proteger el equilibrio ambiental. Sin embargo, el texto del artículo primero de la Ley impugnada reza que: “ARTÍCULO 1.- Por el plazo de veinticuatro meses, se suspenderá el desalojo de personas, demolición de obras, suspensión de actividades y proyectos en la zona marítimo-terrestre, zona fronteriza y patrimonio natural del Estado” . Del texto normativo transcrito, se desprende la factibilidad de suspender, de manera temporal, el ejercicio de las potestades de autotutela para la protección inmediata de los bienes del Estado. Así, en criterio de este Tribunal, la parte recurrente, así como los coadyuvantes respectivos, llevan razón al sostener que la suspensión del desalojo de personas y demolición de obras, acciones que derivan del principio de autotutela administrativa que caracteriza a los bienes de dominio público y, que son necesarias para mantener su integridad, menoscaba la aplicación práctica de dicho principio, poniendo en grave riesgo tales bienes.
De otra parte, en lo atinente a la violación al principio de imprescriptibilidad de los bienes de dominio público, ésta podría estarse dando de forma indirecta, ya que, aunque la Ley No. 9073 no permite el apoderamiento de bienes demaniales para efectos de prescripción positiva y adquisición de la propiedad por particulares, al suspender algún desalojo o demolición en tales bienes, cualquier acción reivindicatoria estatal para recuperar bienes indebidamente apropiados, terminaría frustrada. Y es que, si no se permite el efecto deseado final de toda acción reivindicatoria, sea la recuperación efectiva para el dueño del bien indebidamente apropiado, se está haciendo nugatoria la misma acción. En ese sentido, la relevancia evidente de los bienes del dominio público que serían eventualmente afectados, genera una condición de incumplimiento, en tanto, se permite de manera temporal, continuar y hasta, eventualmente, aumentar situaciones de ocupación irregular sobre áreas silvestres protegidas, reservas forestales, reservas biológicas, reservas nacionales, bosques, parques nacionales, refugios de vida silvestre, terrenos de aptitud forestal, cuencas hidrográficas, humedales, manglares, esteros, islas, monumentos nacionales, áreas de protección, zonas limítrofes, diversidad biológica, patrimonio natural del Estado y zona marítimo terrestre, entre otros, cuya protección, por su importancia desde el punto de vista ecológico y valor estético, está garantizada en materia de derechos humanos.
Así, con la moratoria establecida, todos estos bienes y recursos, aún cuando por definición son inalienables, imprescriptibles e inembargables, se colocan en una situación generalizada de riesgo a partir de la suspensión temporal de las potestades del Estado para efectos de actuar en función de su protección inmediata, por medio de las prerrogativas que establece el cumplimiento de las potestades públicas, en tutela del interés general y el bien común. Por ende, el Estado se encuentra impedido para ejercer sus principales potestades de autotutela, para la protección oportuna y efectiva de las denominadas zonas especiales, contraviniendo con ello, las normas legales, constitucionales y supranacionales en la materia. Por lo expuesto, se acoge la acción en cuanto a este extremo y se declara inconstitucional el artículo primero de la Ley 9073.
EL PRINCIPIO PRECAUTORIO Y EL IN DUBIO PRO NATURA. Se cuestiona la norma ante la ausencia de criterios técnicos que la fundamenten y garanticen la no afectación del ambiente en las que acoge como “zonas especiales”, por estimar violatorio del principio precautorio, en razón que, se procede a desproteger de manera genérica bienes de dominio público. Esta máxima tiene como antecedente mediático la incertidumbre de las consecuencias que se puedan producir en el medio ambiente por la acción humana. (positivas o negativas), de manera que, lo que pretende, es restringir cualquier modificación o alteración al medio ambiente. Es así que, aunque no exista una real evidencia de un beneficio o daño al medio ambiente, rige la denominada presunción relativa que arguye que la duda es siempre en beneficio del medio ambiente. Por ende, mientras no exista la certeza de un beneficio o del no daño, el bien jurídico denominado medio ambiente es de mayor valoración que la relatividad científica, con lo cual, no se requiere la existencia real y tangible de un daño, sino la posibilidad que éste pueda existir, es decir, el riesgo se genera si no se adoptan las medidas de precaución.
De ahí que, este principio surja como consecuencia del resultado del rechazo de la actividad humana incesante sin medir las consecuencias, que podrían afectar de manera irreparable el medio ambiente o la propia salud del ser humano. La tutela conferida por esta regla marca el comienzo de una era de protección al medio ambiente, por medio de la cual, en lugar resolver problemas ambientales ya generados, busca anticiparse al daño y así proteger la salud humana y el medio ambiente. En la Declaración de Río de Janeiro, aprobada por la Conferencia de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Medio Ambiente y el Desarrollo, en junio de 1992, se consagró el Principio Precautorio, bajo el siguiente texto: "Principio 15: Con el fin de proteger el medio ambiente, los Estados deberán aplicar ampliamente el criterio de precaución conforme a sus capacidades. Cuando haya peligro de daño grave e irreversible, la falta de certeza científica absoluta no deberá utilizarse como razón para postergar la adopción de medidas eficaces en función de los costos para impedir la degradación del medio ambiente".
Por otro lado, el artículo 174 del Tratado de la Unión Europea en su apartado segundo, preceptúa que: " La política de la comunidad en el ámbito del medio ambiente tendrá como objetivo alcanzar un nivel de protección elevado, teniendo presente la diversidad de situaciones existentes en las distintas regiones de la Comunidad. Se basará en los principios de precaución y de acción preventiva, en el principio de corrección de los atentados al medio ambiente, preferentemente en la fuente misma y en el principio de que quien contamina paga". Por eso, el principio de precaución diferencia el derecho ambiental del resto de las disciplinas clásicas y, constituye, en nuestro juicio, un principio estructural, de base, o vertebral de la novísima disciplina jurídica ambiental. El principio de precaución también ha sido ampliamente analizado por este Tribunal, según lo que se desprende del Voto No. 5893-95, que en su literalidad arguye: "Asimismo, en la Declaración de Río sobre Medio Ambiente y el Desarrollo, entre otras cosas, quedó establecido el derecho soberano de los estados a definir sus políticas de desarrollo.
Se enuncia también, el principio precautorio (principio 15 de la Declaración de Río), según el cual "con el fin de proteger el ambiente, los Estados deberán aplicar ampliamente el criterio de precaución conforme a sus capacidades. Cuando haya peligro de daño grave o irreversible, la falta de certeza científica absoluta no deberá utilizarse como razón para postergar la adopción de medidas eficaces en función de los costos para impedir la degradación del ambiente." De modo que, en la protección de nuestros recursos naturales, debe existir una actitud preventiva, es decir, si la degradación y el deterioro deben ser minimizados, es necesario que la precaución y la prevención sean los principios dominantes, lo cual nos lleva a la necesidad de plantear el principio "in dubio pro natura" que puede extraerse, analógicamente, de otras ramas del Derecho y que es, en un todo, acorde con la naturaleza.
No obstante, la tarea de protección al ambiente, se dificulta toda vez que arrastramos una concepción rígida con respecto al derecho de propiedad, que impide avanzar en pro del ambiente, sin el cual no podría existir el derecho a la vida, al trabajo, a la propiedad o a la salud. No se debe perder de vista el hecho de que estamos en un terreno del derecho, en el que las normas más importantes son las que puedan prevenir todo tipo de daño al ambiente, porque no hay norma alguna que repare, a posteriori, el daño ya hecho; necesidad de prevención que resulta más urgente cuando de países en vías de desarrollo se trata. En este sentido, la Declaración de Estocolmo afirmó "...que en los países en desarrollo la mayoría de los problemas ambientales son causados por el mismo subdesarrollo. Millones continúan viviendo por debajo de los estándares mínimos de salud y salubridad. Por lo tanto los países en desarrollo deben dirigir todos sus esfuerzos hacia el desarrollo, teniendo en mente las prioridades y necesidades para salvaguardar y mejorar el ambiente.
Por la misma razón los países industrializados deberían hacer esfuerzos para reducir la brecha entre ellos y los países en desarrollo.". El artículo segundo, del cuerpo normativo cuestionado, enuncia que “ARTÍCULO 2.- La disposición prevista en el artículo anterior no excluye dictar las medidas cautelares judiciales o administrativas, ni la ejecución de resoluciones judiciales o administrativas en firme, en ambos casos cuando se determine la comisión de daño ambiental o peligro o amenaza de daño al medio ambiente. Las resoluciones administrativas referidas en el párrafo anterior serán exclusivamente las emitidas por el Tribunal Administrativo Ambiental o por el ministro de Ambiente y Energía”, con lo cual, se estaría en presencia de dos posibles lesiones al principio precautorio. La primera, porque una de las causales para imponer medidas cautelares y ejecución de resoluciones es la producción de un daño ambiental, es decir, que se reacciona cuando ya se ha producido el efecto negativo en el ambiente, que es justo lo que se pretende evitar con el principio precautorio, y; en segundo término, porque la norma no parece incluir la posibilidad que en caso de duda de peligro o amenaza al ambiente se pueda actuar, sino que pareciera partir que tal peligro o amenaza debe ser cierto o comprobado.
A lo anterior, debe añadirse que según el párrafo segundo del propio artículo 2 de la Ley No. 9073, las únicas resoluciones administrativas que podrían ejecutarse son las emitidas por el Tribunal Ambiental Administrativo o el Ministro de Ambiente y Energía, dejándose de lado otros órganos y entidades que también tienen competencia en esta materia como el Ministerio de Salud, las diferentes Áreas de Conservación del Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación, las municipalidades, etc., con lo que, se reducen las posibilidades de actuar de manera preventiva. Al lado de la apreciaciones de cita, surge la interrogante sobre el modo en que se va a determinar el daño o el peligro o amenaza de éste, vista la gran cantidad de territorio que deberá cubrirse (zonas fronterizas, zona marítimo terrestre, áreas silvestres protegidas, bosques y terrenos forestales del Patrimonio Natural del Estado de todo el país) y la escasez de recursos con que se cuenta actualmente y que deberán destinarse para realizar semejante labor.
En consonancia con lo dicho, no sería extraño que la amenaza de daño ambiental termine por materializarse antes que se emita la medida administrativa que lo evite. Por ello, aunque el ordinal quinto de la Ley 9073, disponga que “Durante la vigencia de la moratoria, el Estado no deberá permitir que se den nuevas ocupaciones en las zonas referidas en el artículo 1 de esta Ley”, éste aparenta ser un enunciado de imposible cumplimiento práctico, que no viene a paliar los vicios enunciados supra en los artículos primero y segundo de la Ley 9073, ni mucho menos, a evitar daños al medio ambiente. Hay que tener en consideración que, acorde con lo indicado por la Contraloría General de la República, en los antecedentes del Proyecto de Ley que dio origen a la norma cuestionada, no existe información de carácter oficial que permita identificar a las familias beneficiadas con la moratoria, la naturaleza de su interés, su ubicación, las condiciones del área ocupada, en fin, cualquier dato que permita individualizar a los beneficiarios de la suspensión; siendo la moratoria contraria al orden público, al permitir que continúen o se inicien nuevas y potenciales daños al medio ambiente, con el ingreso de nuevos poseedores irregulares o, cualesquiera otros actos irregulares sobrevenidos con la emisión de esta prerrogativa. Corolario, se acoge la acción en cuanto a este extremo y se declaran inconstitucionales los artículos 2 y 5 de la Ley 9073.
ACERCA DEL PRINCIPIO DE NO REGRESIÓN DE CONTENIDOS. A su vez, los principios de prevención y precaución también contenidos en la Declaración de Río complementan al principio de no regresión. Esta postura fue adoptada por la Sala Constitucional en el Voto No. 2010-18202, que en lo que interesa dispone: “De tal forma, el principio precautorio encuentra aplicación en la medida que se carezca de certeza en cuanto al daño a producir y las medidas de mitigación o reparación que deben implementarse, pues al tenerse certeza sobre el tipo o magnitud del daño ambiental que puede producirse y de las medidas que deberán adoptarse en cada momento, se elimina todo sesgo de duda y, por consiguiente, resultaría impropio dar aplicación al principio precautorio. Dicho de otro modo, el principio precautorio debe ser aplicado en supuestos de duda razonable o incerteza, mas no cuando se tiene certeza del tipo de daño y de las medidas que deban adoptarse, ya que por su propia naturaleza resulta inviable la aplicación de este principio.
Sin embargo, en el presente caso se echa de menos esta valoración. Ciertamente, cada concesión requerirá de previo un estudio de impacto ambiental evaluado por parte de SETENA, no obstante lo anterior, algunos de estos ecosistemas, por ejemplo las reservas marinas, son áreas que fueron protegidas precisamente con la intención de que en esta zona no se realice ninguna actividad extractiva y no se vea afectada tampoco, por ningún tipo de contaminación (escapes de motores, contaminaciones acústicas, contaminaciones luminosas, etc.), para que la flora y la fauna se vayan regenerando a lo largo del tiempo, hasta que sus poblaciones alcancen el mayor número de ejemplares que pueda haber en ese sitio; lo cual es totalmente excluyente con la concesión de una marina turística por los efectos que evidentemente lo alterarán. Otros ecosistemas de los citados puede ser que no requieran necesariamente una veda absoluta de toda actividad, pero cualquier autorización en ese sentido debe ser valorada y anticipada.
Como ya se indicó, resulta irrazonable proteger unas zonas y otras no sin un criterio técnico que así lo sustente, pues ello resulta lesivo del principio precautorio y del principio de progresividad del ámbito de tutela de los derechos fundamentales”. Básicamente, el principio de no regresión enuncia que la normativa y la jurisprudencia ambiental no deberían ser revisadas si esto implicare retroceder respecto a los niveles de protección alcanzados con anterioridad. Tiene como finalidad evitar la supresión normativa o la reducción de sus exigencias por intereses contrarios que no logren demostrar ser jurídicamente superiores al interés público ambiental, ya que, en muchas ocasiones, dichas regresiones pueden llegar a tener como consecuencia, daños ambientales irreversibles o de difícil reparación. El principio de no regresión implica necesariamente una obligación negativa de no hacer. De esta forma, el nivel de protección ambiental ya alcanzado debe ser respetado, no disminuido, sino, por el contrario, incrementado.
La principal obligación que conlleva su correcta aplicación es, precisamente, la de no retroceder, no afectar los umbrales y estándares de protección ambiental ya adquiridos, no derogar o modificar normativa vigente en la medida que esto conlleve disminuir, menoscabar o de cualquier forma afectar negativamente el nivel actual de protección. Por ello, la prohibición de regresividad funciona como una garantía sustantiva que protege a los titulares de derechos frente a normas o políticas regresivas, impidiendo al Estado el “dar un paso hacia atrás”. Acorde con lo mencionado supra, en el caso de la Ley No. 9073 cuestionada, el principio de no regresión en materia ambiental no se cumple, por cuanto, se pasa de un régimen de tutela administrativa en el cual perviven necesarios y suficientes mecanismos para liberar las áreas naturales de invasiones y ocupaciones ilegales, así como, el levantamiento de obras que pueden poner en peligro el fin público perseguido con tales áreas, a un régimen que tolera tales actos sin que existan garantías adecuadas que garanticen que el ambiente no se va a ver afectado.
Particularmente, el artículo 3 cuestionado, promulga una regresión en materia ambiental al estatuir la posible desaplicación de la moratoria sólo en el patrimonio natural del Estado y cuando esas zonas hayan sido declaradas bajo esa categoría. Dispone el numeral 3 de cita que: “Artículo 3.- Cuando se trate de zonas declaradas patrimonio natural del Estado, únicamente el Ministro de Ambiente y Energía podrá desaplicar la moratoria, mediante la fundamentación técnica pertinente, cuando se determine la comisión de daño ambiental o peligro o amenaza de daño al medio ambiente.” Mediante esta norma no sólo se está dando una disminución de la tutela ambiental en los términos expuestos, sino que también y, sin justificación alguna, se disminuye aún más para el Patrimonio Natural del Estado la protección con respecto a la zona marítimo terrestre y las zonas fronterizas, ya que, para éstas las medidas cautelares y resoluciones administrativas las pueden dictar tanto el Tribunal Ambiental Administrativo como el Ministro de Ambiente y Energía (artículo 2), mientras que para aquel Patrimonio lo sería sólo dicho Ministro. En consecuencia, se acoge la acción en cuanto a este extremo y se declara inconstitucional el artículo 3 de la Ley 9073.
DEL PRINCIPIO DE RAZONABILIDAD Y PROPORCIONALIDAD. Esta Sala, en reiterados pronunciamientos, ha indicado que este principio constituye, incluso, un parámetro de constitucionalidad de los actos sujetos al derecho público (leyes, reglamentos y actos administrativos en general), razón por la cual, se ha preocupado de su análisis y desarrollo. En el Voto No. 732-01 de las 12:24 horas del 26 de enero de 2001, este Tribunal Constitucional señaló lo siguiente:
“(…) V.- DEL PRINCIPIO DE RAZONABILIDAD COMO PARÁMETRO CONSTITUCIONAL. La jurisprudencia constitucional ha sido clara y conteste en considerar que el principio de razonabilidad constituye un parámetro de constitucionalidad. Conviene recordar, en primer término, que la "razonabilidad de la ley" nació como parte del "debido proceso sustantivo" (substantive due process of law), garantía creada por la jurisprudencia de la Suprema Corte de los Estados Unidos de América, al hilo de la Enmienda XIV a la Constitución Federal. En la concepción inicial "debido proceso" se dirigió al enjuiciamiento procesal del acto legislativo y su efecto sobre los derechos sustantivos. Al finalizar el siglo XIX, sin embargo, se superó aquella concepción procesal que le había dado origen y se elevó a un recurso axiológico que limita el accionar del órgano legislativo. A partir de entonces podemos hablar del debido proceso como una garantía genérica de la libertad, es decir, como una garantía sustantiva.
La superación del "debido proceso" como garantía procesal obedece, básicamente, a que también la ley que se ha ajustado al procedimiento establecido y es válida y eficaz, puede lesionar el Derecho de la Constitución. Para realizar el juicio de razonabilidad la doctrina estadounidense invita a examinar, en primer término, la llamada "razonabilidad técnica" dentro de la que se examina la norma en concreto (ley, reglamento, etc.). Una vez establecido que la norma elegida es la adecuada para regular determinada materia, habrá que examinar si hay proporcionalidad entre el medio escogido y el fin buscado. Superado el criterio de "razonabilidad técnica" hay que analizar la "razonabilidad jurídica". Para lo cual esta doctrina propone examinar: a) razonabilidad ponderativa, que es un tipo de valoración jurídica a la que se concurre cuando ante la existencia de un determinado antecedente (ej. ingreso) se exige una determinada prestación (ej. tributo), debiendo en este supuesto establecerse si la misma es equivalente o proporcionada; b) la razonabilidad de igualdad, es el tipo de valoración jurídica que parte de que ante iguales antecedentes deben haber iguales consecuencias, sin excepciones arbitrarias; c) razonabilidad en el fin, en este punto se valora si el objetivo a alcanzar, no ofende los fines previstos por el legislador con su aprobación.
Dentro de este mismo análisis, no basta con afirmar que un medio sea razonablemente adecuado a un fin; es necesario, además, verificar la índole y el tamaño de la limitación que por ese medio debe soportar un derecho personal. De esta manera, si al mismo fin se puede llegar buscando otro medio que produzca una limitación menos gravosa a los derechos personales, el medio escogido no es razonable (…).” Siguiendo la doctrina alemana, esta Sala Constitucional ha considerado que los componentes básicos de la proporcionalidad lo son la legitimidad, la idoneidad, la necesidad y la proporcionalidad en sentido estricto. Así, en el Voto No. 3933-98 de las 09:50 hhoras del 12 de junio de 1998, se indicó lo siguiente: “(…) La legitimidad se refiere a que el objetivo pretendido con el acto o disposición impugnado, no debe estar al menos legalmente prohibido. La idoneidad indica que la medida estatal cuestionada deber ser apta para alcanzar efectivamente el objetivo pretendido.
La necesidad significa que entre varias medidas igualmente aptas para alcanzar tal objetivo, debe la autoridad competente elegir aquella que afecte lo menos posible la esfera jurídica de la persona. La proporcionalidad en sentido estricto dispone que aparte del requisito de que la norma sea apta y necesaria, lo ordenado por ella no debe estar fuera de proporción con respecto al objetivo pretendido, es decir, no le sea "inexigible" al individuo (…).”. En el Voto No. 8858-98 de las 16:33 horas del 15 de diciembre de 1998, este Tribunal volvió a mencionar los componentes referidos, al considerar que:
“(…) Un acto limitativo de derechos es razonable cuando cumple con una triple condición: debe ser necesario, idóneo y proporcional. La necesidad de una medida hace directa referencia a la existencia de una base fáctica que haga preciso proteger algún bien o conjunto de bienes de la colectividad - o de un determinado grupo - mediante la adopción de una medida de diferenciación. Es decir, que si dicha actuación no es realizada, importantes intereses públicos van a ser lesionados. Si la limitación no es necesaria, tampoco podrá ser considerada como razonable, y por ende constitucionalmente válida. La idoneidad, por su parte, importa un juicio referente a si el tipo de restricción a ser adoptado cumple o no con la finalidad de satisfacer la necesidad detectada. La inidoneidad de la medida nos indicaría que pueden existir otros mecanismos que en mejor manera solucionen la necesidad existente, pudiendo algunos de ellos cumplir con la finalidad propuesta sin restringir el disfrute del derecho en cuestión.
Por su parte, la proporcionalidad nos remite a un juicio de necesaria comparación entre la finalidad perseguida por el acto y el tipo de restricción que se impone o pretende imponer, de manera que la limitación no sea de entidad marcadamente superior al beneficio que con ella se pretende obtener en beneficio de la colectividad. De los dos últimos elementos, podría decirse que el primero se basa en un juicio cualitativo, en cuanto que el segundo parte de una comparación cuantitativa de los dos objetos analizados. (…).” Acorde con lo mencionado con los defensores de la medida acogida en la presente Ley, a través de la moratoria mencionada de 2 años, el fundamento primigenio que da vida a estos preceptos, se basa en que por décadas, generaciones de decenas de miles de familias costarricense han habitado las costas e islas costarricenses, han construido allí sus hogares, desarrollando actividades económicas como la pesca artesanal, el turismo local y la agricultura, por mencionar algunos.
Sin embargo, en muchos casos, esas ocupaciones no cuentan con el aval del Estado, pues, no nacieron con base en concesiones, lo que ha ocasionados un proliferación de desalojos y derribo de las construcciones edificadas por esos núcleos familiares. No obstante y, aunque esta Sala estima valedera la preocupación externada por los coadyuvantes respectivos en este sentido, lo cierto es que esta normativa no encuentra fundamento en estudios que documenten e individualicen de alguna manera a las familias o las personas que por una u otra razón, se encuentran en esta condición, con lo cual, se torna imposible la determinación sobre la estricta necesidad de la medida legislativa tomada. En este sentido, esta Sala Constitucional, en sentencia número 2006-17126 de las 15:05 horas del 28 de noviembre de 2006, expresó:
“ De la objetivación de la tutela ambiental: el cual, tal y como lo señaló este Tribunal en sentencia número 14293-2005, de las catorce horas cincuenta y dos horas del diecinueve de octubre del dos mil cinco, es un principio que […], como derivado de lo dispuesto en los artículos 16 y 160 de la Ley General de la Administración Pública, se traduce en la necesidad de acreditar con estudios técnicos la toma de decisiones en esta materia, tanto en relación con actos como de las disposiciones de carácter general – tanto legales como reglamentarias – , de donde se deriva la exigencia de la "vinculación a la ciencia y a la técnica" , con lo cual, se condiciona la discrecionalidad de la Administración en esta materia. De manera que en atención a los resultados que se deriven de esos estudios técnicos – tales como los estudios de impacto ambiental– , si se evidencia un criterio técnico objetivo que denote la probabilidad de un evidente daño al ambiente, los recursos naturales o a la salud de las personas, es que resulta obligado desechar el proyecto, obra o actividad propuestas; y en caso de una "duda razonable" resulta obligado tomar decisiones en pro del ambiente (principio pro-natura), que puede traducirse en la adopción, tanto de medidas compensatorias como precautorias, a fin de proteger de la manera adecuada el ambiente”.
Debe tenerse en cuenta que en materia de medio ambien, la realización de los estudios técnicos previos que justifiquen la medida de desafectación de bienes demaniales, o en este caso, de una moratoria como la descrita, no es sino la objetivación del principio de razonabilidad en materia de protección al ambiente. Siendo que, al no contar con estudios objetivos y previos sobre los efectos que la moratoria en cuestión tendría con respecto a los intereses públicos y al Patrimonio Natural del Estado, no se da una adecuada relación entre los medios utilizados por la Ley y los fines que se pretenden alcanzar con dicha medida, ni se sabe con objetividad, si la moratoria es pertinente o no, lo cual resulta también contrario a los principios constitucionales de objetivación, razonabilidad y proporcionalidad. En el caso de la normativa analizada, la ausencia de estudios técnicos previos que determinen, no sólo las consecuencias que sobre el Patrimonio Natural del Estado podría tener la aplicación de la moratoria de cita, sino además, el no haber tomado medidas concretas que impidan una permisión a ultranza para que todas las personas, sin distingo, puedan acceder al beneficio prohijado por la normativa cuestionada, constituye una clara amenaza al medio ambiente.
Una situación como la descrita, se constituye una duda razonable en relación con la conveniente tutela medio ambiental de la Ley cuestionada, lo cual, va en detrimento de los principios in dubio pro natura y de su derivado principio precautorio –ya mencionados-, con violación de lo dispuesto en el artículo 50, de la Constitución Política. De hecho, comparte esta Sala lo manifestado por los detractores de esta normativa, que afirmaron que surge la duda de si la Ley se habrá promulgado pensando, únicamente, en la situación específica de una comunidad concreta de una de las denominadas “áreas especiales”. Por otro lado, es cuestionable la proporcionalidad de la medida en tanto al hacerse de una forma tan genérica, podría estar beneficiando a personas cuya situación ilegítima la Ley no tolera; sea, la ocupación cuyo origen se fundamenta en concesiones otorgadas a regidores o alcaldes municipales en zona marítimo terrestre, a personas físicas con más de una concesión, a sociedades domiciliadas en el exterior o, a personas que hayan cortado bosque o cambiado el uso del suelo dentro de áreas silvestres protegidas.
Lo mismo valdría decir del amparo legal que se estaría otorgando a personas que no reúnen el perfil de las que se mencionan en la exposición de motivos, como sujetos con alto poder adquisitivo o consorcios económicos con proyectos constructivos importantes. Tampoco, estima esta Sala, se hace distinción entre los diferentes tipos de “áreas especiales”, siendo muy evidente que no es lo mismo, una ocupación irregular dentro de una reserva forestal que dentro de un parque nacional, donde las consecuencias ambientales pueden ser en extremo lesivas y perjudiciales para los ecosistemas. Finalmente, no se aprecia que se haya hecho un análisis sobre la posibilidad de resolver la situación fáctica que genera la Ley No. 9073 a través del uso y aplicación de instrumentos legales ya existentes, sin tener que recurrir a una moratoria general, como la que se plasmó finalmente en la norma cuestionada. Incluso, vale mencionar que, últimamente, nuestros legisladores han pensado en extender la moratoria acá revisada, por más tiempo, concretando el temor ya externado por la Contraloría General de la República, de perpetuar en el tiempo una medida perniciosa para el medio ambiente, que en principio, fue pensada para ser aplicada por un período relativamente corto.
DEL PRINCIPIO DE IGUALDAD. A PROPÓSITO DEL DESARROLLO HUMANO SOSTENIBLE. La parte accionante destaca el hecho que con el contenido de la Ley impugnada, el principio de igualdad consagrado en el artículo 33 de la Carta Magna, se ve violentado, pues, esa norma dispone brindar un trato igualitario a los terrenos ubicados en la Zona Marítimo Terrestre, en la Zona Fronteriza o en las áreas pertenecientes al Patrimonio Natural del Estado, sin diferenciar si las personas se encuentran en esas áreas de manera legal o ilegal, si se trata de nacionales o extranjeros, o bien de personas físicas o jurídicas, si realizan actividades económicas, artesanales o de turismo de subsistencia. Incluso, muchos de los ocupantes legales de la zona marítimo terrestre, de áreas silvestres protegidas o de zonas fronterizas han tenido que invertir tiempo y recursos económicos para obtener un estatus jurídico conforme al ordenamiento jurídico, primero, para obtener la autorización administrativa a fin de ocupar válidamente el espacio y, luego, para poder obtener permisos de construcción, en los casos que la Ley lo permita, sin olvidar el pago contraprestaciones económicas que regularmente deben hacer para seguir disfrutando de su situación jurídica.
Por contra, los ocupantes ilegales que han irrespetado las leyes protectoras de las áreas involucradas, introduciéndose en ellas de manera no autorizada, en algunos casos realizando hasta actos dañinos al ambiente, o bien, levantando instalaciones sin solicitar ningún tipo de permiso, se van a ver beneficiados por la generalidad con la que fue redactada esta norma. Es así como, con la Ley No. 9073, como lo afirma la parte accionante, se colocan en condición de igualdad, sin tenerla, a personas legales e ilegales en cuanto a su permanencia en el terreno que ocupan, al no permitirse el desalojo de los segundos ni la demolición de sus construcciones. Tal desbalance, en criterio de este Tribunal Constitucional, no es equitativo y quebranta el principio de igualdad. Incluso, no estima esta Sala que lleven razón los defensores de esta normativa, cuando atienden a novedosas materias incorporadas al derecho ambiental moderno y, que propugnan el desarrollo humano sostenible.
Este Tribunal entiende esa corriente, como un proceso de cambio progresivo en la calidad de vida del ser humano, que lo coloca como centro y sujeto primordial del desarrollo y, se construye a partir del protagonismo real de las personas (familias, niños/as, productores, organizaciones e instituciones locales), fomentando un tipo de crecimiento económico con equidad social, así como la transformación de los métodos de producción y de los patrones de consumo que se sustentan en el equilibrio ecológico y dan soporte a las formas de vida de acuerdo a los valores de las personas según su espacio. En la construcción de esta corriente, se asigna un rol protagónico al ser humano como promotor del desarrollo local, regional y nacional, en el que el Estado actúa como estimulador de soluciones creativas surgidas de todos los espacios, las cuales emergen de abajo hacia arriba y no son impuestas por leyes o decretos.
La idea parte de dotar a la persona de una participación protagónica, sin ser minimizada su acción por los grupos económicos o políticos. Se puede decir que este tipo de desarrollo, es el proceso de transformación de la sociedad que compatibiliza la satisfacción de las necesidades, opciones y capacidades del ser humano como centro y sujeto del desarrollo, garantizando la cultura, distribuyendo adecuadamente los costos ambientales a la economía y ampliando la participación de la base social. Esto no puede lograrse sin la aplicación integral de políticas económicas, sociales y ambientales y la participación de distintos actores a distintos niveles (local, regional y global). Es un concepto emergente que aunque se relaciona con la noción del desarrollo sostenible, donde las actividades de las generaciones actuales no reduzcan las oportunidades y las opciones de las generaciones futuras, incluye la percepción de un desarrollo a escala humana que permita elevar la calidad de vida de las personas.
Sin embargo, en el caso en estudio, dicha premisa no resultaría valedera para los efectos que nos competen, pues, en nuestra estima, priman sin duda alguna los razonamientos vertidos en los considerandos precedentes, que colocan los artículos impugnados en condición de inconstitucionales.
En mérito de las consideraciones anteriores, se impone estimar la presente acción de inconstitucionalidad, conforme se expondrá en la parte dispositiva de esta sentencia. En relación con los demás aspectos alegados, generadores de inconstitucionalidad, la Sala omite pronunciamiento, por innecesarios.
Esta acción fue declarada con lugar y coincido plenamente con las razones expresadas en la sentencia. Sin embargo, me parece oportuno resaltar algunas razones adicionales a esta declaratoria de inconstitucionalidad, tal como indico a continuación.
El Estado tiene la obligación de actuar en defensa de los bienes demaniales. Una ley que suspenda el ejercicio de tal obligación sería inconstitucional, no sólo en cuanto permite dejar de atender una obligación constitucional, sino además, se suma el hecho de que esos bienes demaniales, con frecuencia, están relacionados con el derecho al ambiente, pues se trata del Patrimonio natural del Estado. Así entonces considero que, estamos frente a una violación del principio de tutela efectiva de los bienes demaniales y además, una violación al derecho al ambiente.
En la ley impugnada se estaba desnaturalizando e invirtiendo el sentido de los principios, pues la suspensión de la protección del demanio público se convirtió en la regla y la protección una excepción. Claramente esa desnaturalización implica también una violación a los principios precautorio y principio in dubio pro natura, y por consiguiente además, nuevamente, el derecho al ambiente. La pretensión de la ley conculca, claramente, la tutela del ambiente.
Asimismo, se evidencia una violación al principio de no regresión o principio de progresividad en materia ambiental, en una concepción más amplia que lo que indica este voto, pues considero que, conforme a tal principio, se debe garantizar que la protección ambiental no se vea debilitada, sino al contrario, que haya una mejora en la legislación ambiental, incluso mediante el incremento del nivel de protección, sobre la base de los conocimientos científicos más recientes. Es una obligación del Estado evitar la regresión, pero al mismo tiempo, asumir activamente, la progresividad. Ambas obligaciones se transgreden en la normativa impugnada. La tutela del ambiente requiere una política progresiva muy bien definida, porque los perjuicios al ambiente son graves y en muchas ocasiones, irreversibles.
La laxitud en temas de ambiente puede tener efectos irremediables y a veces, catastróficos, esa es la amenaza grave que contenía la ley declarada inconstitucional.
POR TANTO:
Se declara con lugar la acción de inconstitucionalidad interpuesta contra la Ley No. 9073, de Protección a los Ocupantes de Zonas clasificadas como Especiales, del 19 de septiembre de 2012. En consecuencia se declara inconstitucional la totalidad de la Ley. De conformidad con el artículo 91 de la Ley de la Jurisdicción Constitucional esta sentencia tiene efectos declarativos y retroactivos a la fecha de vigencia de las normas anuladas, sin perjuicio de los derechos adquiridos de buena fe y las relaciones o situaciones jurídicas que se hubieran consolidado por prescripción, caducidad o en virtud de sentencia pasada en autoridad de cosa juzgada material. Publíquese íntegramente en el Boletín Judicial y reséñese en el Diario Oficial La Gaceta. El Magistrado Cruz Castro da razones adicionales. La Magistrada Hernández López pone nota. Notifíquese al Presidente de la Asamblea Legislativa para lo de su cargo y a todas las partes.
Fernando Castillo V.
Fernando Cruz C.
Paul Rueda L.
Nancy Hernández L.
Luis Fdo. Salazar A.
Jorge Araya G.
Hubert Fernández A.
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