← Environmental Law Center← Centro de Derecho Ambiental
30/08/2010
OutcomeResultado
The Agrarian Court confirms the strict liability of anyone who conducts burns — even with a permit — and sets out the criteria for proving damages and losses during the judgment-enforcement phase.El Tribunal Agrario confirma la responsabilidad objetiva de quien realiza quemas, aun con permiso, y establece los criterios para probar daños y perjuicios en fase de ejecución de sentencia.
SummaryResumen
This Agrarian Court ruling analyzes non-contractual civil liability arising from agricultural burns from an agrarian-environmental perspective. It provides a comprehensive regulatory overview (the Law on Dividing Fences and Burns, the Forestry Law, the Soil Law, and their regulations) and, relying on Supreme Court case law, reaffirms the strict-liability nature of burn damages: fault is presumed in whoever creates the risk of fire. It explains that neither administrative authorization nor compliance with formal requirements exempts the operator from compensating neighboring landowners. It also develops the concepts of damage (damnum emergens) and lost profits (lucrum cessans), requiring certainty, injury to a legally relevant interest, and causation between the unlawful act and the harm. Finally, it recalls the burden-of-proof principle: the party claiming damages must prove them; an abstract condemnation is insufficient, and the causal link must be demonstrated in the enforcement phase. The opinion stresses that burning is inherently dangerous and contrary to the constitutional protection of the environment (Article 50).Esta sentencia del Tribunal Agrario analiza la responsabilidad civil extracontractual derivada de la práctica de quemas agrícolas desde una perspectiva agrario-ambiental. El tribunal efectúa una reseña normativa completa (Ley de Cercas Divisorias y Quemas, Ley Forestal, Ley de Suelos y sus reglamentos) y, apoyándose en jurisprudencia de la Sala Primera, reafirma el carácter objetivo de la responsabilidad por quemas: la culpa se presume en quien crea el riesgo del fuego. Explica que ni la autorización administrativa ni el cumplimiento de requisitos eximen de indemnizar los daños ocasionados a colindantes. Desarrolla también el concepto de daño (damnum emergens) y perjuicio (lucro cesante), exigiendo certeza, lesión a un interés jurídico relevante y relación causal con el hecho ilícito. Finalmente recuerda el principio de carga de la prueba: quien alega daños debe probarlos, y la condena en abstracto no basta; hace falta demostrar el nexo causal en la fase de ejecución. El fallo subraya que la actividad de quemar es intrínsecamente riesgosa y contraria a la protección constitucional del ambiente (artículo 50).
Key excerptExtracto clave
“The regulations on burns and fires follow the criterion of strict liability. Fault is presumed in whoever created the conditions of the harm by having assumed the risk of injuring third parties through the burn or fire. The damages and losses caused are their responsibility. The injured party is exempted from proving fault. The burden of proving absence of fault rests on the person who burned or set the fire. It is an iuris tantum presumption. Exemptions from liability would be force majeure, the victim’s fault, or the act of a third party. […] Whoever burns or sets a fire, even with the authorization of the competent authority, cannot be exempted from liability. This is so because although Law No. 121 of October 26, 1909, on Burns and Dividing Fences, establishes guidelines for authorizing burns on agricultural properties and sets forth a series of obligations for the applicant, this does not break the presumption of culpability. The requirements for authorizing burns are intended to ensure minimum risk. It is a precautionary measure, but not an exemption from liability.”“La normativa de quemas e incendios siguen el criterio de la responsabilidad objetiva. La culpa se presume en quien creó las condiciones del daño por haber asumido el riesgo de perjudicar a terceros con la quema o incendio. Los daños y perjuicios ocasionados son a su cargo. El damnificado está exento de probar la culpa. La carga de la prueba sobre la ausencia de culpa corresponde a quien quemó o incendió. Es una presunción iuris tantum. Sería eximente de responsabilidad la fuerza mayor, la culpa de la víctima o el hecho de un tercero. […] Quien quema o incendia, aún con la autorización de la autoridad correspondiente, no puede ser eximido de responsabilidad. Esto es así porque si bien la Ley de Quemas y Cercas Divisorias N° 121 del 26 de octubre de 1909 establece las pautas para autorizar las quemas en fundos agrarios, y establece una serie de obligaciones respecto de quien solicita la autorización, ello no rompe la presunción de culpabilidad. Los requisitos para autorizar las quemas tienden a asegurar el mínimo riesgo. Se trata de una medida precautoria pero no es una eximente de responsabilidad.”
Pull quotesCitas destacadas
"La normativa de quemas e incendios siguen el criterio de la responsabilidad objetiva. La culpa se presume en quien creó las condiciones del daño por haber asumido el riesgo de perjudicar a terceros con la quema o incendio."
"The regulations on burns and fires follow the criterion of strict liability. Fault is presumed in whoever created the conditions of the harm by having assumed the risk of injuring third parties through the burn or fire."
Considerando VI
"La normativa de quemas e incendios siguen el criterio de la responsabilidad objetiva. La culpa se presume en quien creó las condiciones del daño por haber asumido el riesgo de perjudicar a terceros con la quema o incendio."
Considerando VI
"Quien quema o incendia, aún con la autorización de la autoridad correspondiente, no puede ser eximido de responsabilidad."
"Whoever burns or sets a fire, even with the authorization of the competent authority, cannot be exempted from liability."
Considerando VI
"Quien quema o incendia, aún con la autorización de la autoridad correspondiente, no puede ser eximido de responsabilidad."
Considerando VI
"El daño, en sentido jurídico constituye todo menoscabo, pérdida o detrimento de la esfera jurídica patrimonial o extrapatrimonial de la persona (damnificado), el cual provoca la privación de un bien jurídico, respecto del cual era objetivamente esperable su conservación de no haber acaecido el hecho dañoso."
"Damage, in the legal sense, constitutes any impairment, loss, or detriment to the patrimonial or extra-patrimonial legal sphere of the person (the injured party), which causes the deprivation of a legal interest whose preservation was objectively expectable had the harmful event not occurred."
Considerando VIII
"El daño, en sentido jurídico constituye todo menoscabo, pérdida o detrimento de la esfera jurídica patrimonial o extrapatrimonial de la persona (damnificado), el cual provoca la privación de un bien jurídico, respecto del cual era objetivamente esperable su conservación de no haber acaecido el hecho dañoso."
Considerando VIII
"La actividad de incendiar o quemar en sí misma, va dirigida contra la Naturaleza. [...] Este tipo de acciones resultan incompatibles con los valores actuales. Atenta contra la seguridad en cuanto arriesga la propiedad de los colindantes, sus bienes y personas. Igualmente atenta contra los valores de protección al medio ambiente."
"The activity of burning or setting fire is, in itself, directed against Nature. [...] This type of action is incompatible with current values. It threatens security by endangering the property of neighbors, their assets, and persons. It equally threatens environmental protection values."
Considerando VI
"La actividad de incendiar o quemar en sí misma, va dirigida contra la Naturaleza. [...] Este tipo de acciones resultan incompatibles con los valores actuales. Atenta contra la seguridad en cuanto arriesga la propiedad de los colindantes, sus bienes y personas. Igualmente atenta contra los valores de protección al medio ambiente."
Considerando VI
Full documentDocumento completo
VI.Agrarian case law has been prolific in establishing strict liability (responsabilidad objetiva) for agro-environmental damages, and particularly in the case of burnings (quemas). Therefore, the Tribunal will first analyze that subject:
" IV.- Our legal system (ordenamiento jurídico) contains several provisions that expressly and directly refer to burnings and forest fires (incendios forestales) and the liability (responsabilidad) arising from them. We thus have: a) Law of Dividing Fences and Burnings (Ley de Cercas Divisorias y Quemas), No. 121 of October 26, 1909: Its article 5 prohibits burnings in the fields. It only authorizes them when it is a matter of clearing (desmontes) to enable land for agricultural purposes. To do so, one must:
VII.Modern doctrine, for its part, has supported the objectivization of liability, by including within the factors of imputability and legal attribution of damage, apart from negligence (culpa) and intent (dolo), risk. It has even been proposed to include other objective factors such as: guarantee, equity, abuse of right, and excess of normal tolerance between neighbors. Damage is thus seen not from the author's act but from the position of the injured party, to ensure that every unjustly caused damage is repaired. From another point of view, negligence has been separated from the wrongfulness (ilicitud) of the act, giving a more important role to the latter. 'Once the equivalence between the wrongfulness of the act and negligence is broken, the conduct acquired an autonomous physiognomy detached from the subjective profile of the agent's will, to become a simple means, cause, or criterion of connection between a subject held liable and a certain damaging event to be compensated.' (Franzoni (Massimo), Dangerous Activity, in Liability for Damages in the Third Millennium, Abeledo Perrot, Buenos Aires, 1997, p. 120).
Thus, the Theory of Risk is discussed, which does not displace negligence but complements it, and is summarized as the duty of one who creates a risk to compensate the damage caused to a third party. 'Risk is a cause of imputability when, due to the performance of certain causes and specific activities, qualified as dangerous, damage occurs. The damage in these circumstances must be compensated, not because its agent has incurred intent or negligence, but because the legal order must protect the community from the development of dangerous activities, so that whoever performs them incurs liability if damage is caused by virtue of such performance... Liability arising from risk does not depend on the intent or negligence of the agent but originates from the mere occurrence of the damage resulting from the dangerous activity. This consideration brings with it a special regime of proof, according to which, by the mere exercise of the unsafe activity, the agent's negligence is presumed, exempting the victim from the task of proving improper conduct.
It is up to the agent to rebut the presumption...' ([Nombre1], Imputable Damaging Act in On Damage, Editora Jurídica, 1st Ed., Colombia, 2001, p. 260). For other authors, 'the causal relationship is an element of the illicit act and of contractual breach that links the damage directly with the unlawful act (hecho antijurídico), and indirectly with the element of subjective imputation or objective attribution. It is the binding factor that makes the damage and the negligence, or in its case the risk, integrate into the unity of the act that is the source of the obligation to indemnify' (see [Nombre2] (), The Profile of Civil Liability at the End of the 20th Century in Liability for Damages in the Third Millennium, Abeledo Perrot, Buenos Aires, 1997, pp. 24 to 26).
VIII.Precisely, the performance of burnings –regardless of its purpose– is an undeniably risky activity. Therefore, in accordance with the cited doctrine, the First Chamber of the Supreme Court of Justice has clearly indicated: 'VII.- Burnings can bring, for whoever produces them, civil and criminal liabilities. Civil liability is regulated in the Law on Burnings and Dividing Fences by establishing the obligation, of whoever carries out burnings, to pay the damages caused as a consequence of the fire (article 5, paragraph 4). The owner, possessor, or lessee of the land who, at the time of the fire, was prepared for that purpose is presumed to be the author of the burning... VIII.- The Constitutional Chamber (Sala Constitucional), by means of Vote No. 3459 at 2:42 p.m. on July 20, 1993, established the repeal of article 5, fifth paragraph, of the Law on Burnings and Dividing Fences regarding criminal liability...
The same Constitutional Chamber (Vote No. 439-I-95 at 2:36 p.m. on August 22, 1995) clarified the aforementioned judgment No. 3459-93 in the sense that article 5, paragraphs 5 and 6, of the Law on Dividing Fences and Burnings is repealed only with respect to the criminal aspects it contains... IX.- The regulations on burnings and fires follow the criterion of strict liability. Negligence is presumed in whoever created the conditions for the damage for having assumed the risk of harming third parties with the burning or fire. The damages caused are at their expense. The injured party is exempt from proving negligence. The burden of proof regarding the absence of negligence falls on whoever burned or set the fire. It is a iuris tantum presumption. Force majeure, the victim's fault, or the act of a third party would be exemptions from liability. X. He who foreseeing the eventuality or possibility of damage accepts the effects of the contingency assumes the risk.
Liability is based on creating the risk for damage. The subject, upon initiating the activity, by means of their things, increases, enhances, or multiplies the possibilities of danger. Even if it may be a lawful conduct, whoever assumed the risk must always compensate the damage. There is greater reason to impute liability if the act stems from unlawful conduct. The injured party cannot assume damages from conduct not promoted by themselves, except if they placed themselves in conditions to suffer the damage. Whoever burns or sets a fire, even with the authorization of the corresponding authority, cannot be exempted from liability. This is so because although Law of Burnings and Dividing Fences No. 121 of October 26, 1909, establishes the guidelines for authorizing burnings on agricultural properties, and establishes a series of obligations regarding the person requesting the authorization, this does not break the presumption of guilt.
The requirements for authorizing burnings tend to ensure minimal risk. It is a precautionary measure but not an exemption from liability. Therefore, the fulfillment of the indispensable requirements for authorization cannot harm the neighbors if the incident occurs. In this way, damages to the goods, crops, or to the persons themselves of the neighbors must be compensated by whoever created the conditions of risk with the fire or burning. XI. The activity of setting fires or burning is, in itself, directed against Nature. It is a recourse of primitive agriculture where fire tends to substitute the work of man. Instead of using human or mechanical means to promote agricultural activity, a destructive element is resorted to in order to, on the ashes of what was destroyed, initiate the cultivation of plants or the raising of animals. These types of actions are incompatible with current values.
It threatens security by risking the property of adjacent landowners, their goods, and persons. It equally threatens the values of environmental protection. The economic and social function of property also entails an ecological function: agriculture must develop in harmony, and not in antagonism, with Nature. For the preservation of the environment, social solidarity demands devising new mechanisms to prevent damage and threatening acts. This is the philosophy of the reform to article 50 of the Political Constitution. The Law on Burnings and Dividing Fences and all the problems of liability derived from that activity must be analyzed along these guidelines' (see judgment No. 112 at 3:50 p.m. on October 11, 1995. In the same sense, No. 113 at 4:00 p.m. on October 11, 1995). VII. The Chamber also clarified in the cited judgments that the obligation to compensate the damages caused by burnings and the presumption of liability falling upon whoever prepared the land for that purpose cannot be limited to the case of clearing (desmontes). 'Although it is true that article 5 of the Law on Burnings and Dividing Fences establishes the general prohibition of carrying out burnings in the fields, authorizing them when it is a matter of clearing to enable land for agricultural purposes (first paragraph), this does not eliminate the possibility of carrying out said activity under other conditions and for other purposes, as current reality demonstrates.
That is why the same Law establishes, in the fourth paragraph of numeral 5, a generic liability when it indicates: "In any case, whoever carries out burnings must pay the damages...". This fits perfectly within the generic principle of not harming others. In this case, the damages are borne by the defendant because she assumed the risk of harming her adjacent landowners with the burning. By initiating her activity, preparing the land to be burned, she increased the possibilities of danger. It was unlawful conduct because she did not have authorization from the corresponding administrative authorities, as corroborated in the proven facts. She did not take the minimum precautions required by law to prevent greater damages than those normally produced. Although she took some precautionary measures –creating firebreaks– this is not sufficient to exempt her from her liability to compensate the damages caused to the plaintiff.
The only way to free herself from said liability was to demonstrate the existence of the victim's fault, fortuitous event, or the act of a third party, which she did not do. Even though the Law on Burnings and Dividing Fences dates from 1909, its interpretation must be verified in accordance with articles 10 of the Civil Code and 5 of the Organic Law of the Judicial Branch. Modern interpretation (systematic, material, and evolutionary) requires adapting the content of the norm to the historical circumstances and the social and economic reality in which it will be applied. To this end, the principles and values contained in the Constitution, as well as in the special laws in agrarian matters, must be taken into account.' (see cited judgment No. 112-95). VIII. In accordance with what has been explained, it is possible to perform burnings on lands of agricultural and livestock vocation provided the requirements established in our legal system are met, among them taking sufficient precautionary measures to be able to control the fire, requesting prior permission from the respective public entities, especially the relevant office of the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, and notifying the owners or managers of the neighboring properties.
This last requirement is of utmost importance, because even if all possible measures are taken, natural phenomena such as wind, air currents, and others can cause the fire to spread to other zones outside those originally intended to be burned. By notifying the adjacent landowners, the aim is precisely to minimize or prevent the fire from spreading and causing greater damage, as it enables better vigilance by the neighbors on their own lands and allows them to be prepared to combat it if necessary. Now then, even in the case of having taken all possible precautions and having a permit, whoever originates or causes a burning that produces damage to third parties is liable for such. This is so because it is a risky activity. Liability is of a strict (objetivo) type, as already explained." (Agrarian Tribunal (Tribunal Agrario), No. 815-F-03 of December 16, 2003).- [...]
VIII.Secondly, the matter related to damages (daños y perjuicios) will be analyzed. Case law has defined these concepts as follows: 'IV.- Damage constitutes one of the prerequisites of non-contractual civil liability, inasmuch as the duty to compensate is only configured if a damaging unlawful act has occurred that injures a legally relevant interest, capable of being protected by the legal system. Damage, in a juridical sense, constitutes any impairment, loss, or detriment to the patrimonial or extra-patrimonial juridical sphere of the person (injured party), which causes the deprivation of a juridical good, regarding which its conservation was objectively expectable had the damaging event not occurred. Under this approach, there is no civil liability if damage does not occur, just as there is no damage if there is no injured party. On the other hand, only damage that is proven (reality or existence) is compensable, this being a question of fact reserved to the prudent discretion of the judge.
In summary, damage constitutes the harmful gap for the victim, resulting from comparing the situation prior to the unlawful act with the one subsequent to it. On many occasions, the expressions "damages" and "perjuicios" are used indiscriminately. It is necessary to specify and distinguish both concepts. Damage constitutes the loss inflicted upon the injured party (damnum emergens), while perjuicio is made up of the profit or utility frustrated or failed to be received (lucro cesans), which was reasonably and probably expectable if the unlawful act had not occurred. V. Not just any damage imposes the obligation to compensate. For it to be compensable, the following characteristics must basically converge: A) It must be certain; real and effective, and not merely eventual or hypothetical, it cannot be based on supposed or conjectural realizations. Damage does not lose this character if its quantification is uncertain, indeterminate, or difficult to assess or prove; nor should certainty be confused with actuality, as the repair of certain but future damage is admissible; future damage should not be confused with lost profit (lucro cesante) or perjuicio.
Regarding the magnitude or amount (seriousness) of the damage, this constitutes a matter of sole subjective concern to the injured party, but the law cannot deal with claims based on insignificant damages, derived from excessive susceptibility. B) There must be an injury to a legally relevant interest worthy of compensation. Thus, there may be a direct injured party and an indirect one: the first is the victim of the damaging act, and the second will be the heirs of the victim. C) It must be caused by a third party and be subsisting; that is, it has not been repaired. D) There must be a causal relationship between the unlawful act and the damage. VI. Among the classes of damages, first is material damage (daño material) and bodily harm (daño corporal), the first being that which affects things or material goods that make up the person's estate (patrimonio), while the second impacts physical and bodily integrity.
In doctrine, under the generic denomination of material or patrimonial damage, the specific ones of bodily harm and material damage, in the strict sense, are usually included. The second seems to be the most felicitous expression, as bodily harm tends to affect the injured party's patrimonial interests (payment of medical treatment, hospitalization expenses, medications, etc.), frustrated earnings if the damage has incapacitated them from performing their usual occupations (perjuicios), etc...' (First Chamber of the Court, No. 112 at 2:15 p.m. on July 15, 1992, and No. 714 at 4:20 p.m. on September 18, 2002) – The underline is not from the original.
IX.Regarding the proof of damages, the principle of the burden of proof (carga de la prueba) enshrined in article 317 of the Civil Procedure Code governs, and for cases of enforcement in agrarian matters, in article 62 subsection c) of the Law of Agrarian Jurisdiction (Ley de Jurisdicción Agraria). In this regard, national case law has established the following: 'In matters of damages, a subject on which there is long experience, the evidentiary element plays a very important role. Whoever alleges them must prove them, likewise whoever denies them, except in the case of subjective moral damage (daño moral subjetivo) which judges are allowed to assess according to the rules of experience, logic, and science, without being subject to any other evidentiary criterion. In the modern procedural system, the Roman aphorism judex secundum allegata et probata partium decidere debet remains in full force.
This signifies the limitation of judges to being able to issue their judgments based on everything the parties allege and prove. The simple allegation of a fact is not sufficient for its conviction because it is the party who is obligated to offer the evidence in time, obtain its admission from the judge, present it to be processed, and finally, within the evidentiary assessment process, a task par excellence of the judge, attribute to those evidentiary elements the necessary value to accredit the formulated fact. This is the well-known principle of the burden of proof. It consists of the obligation of everyone who alleges a fact or a claim to proceed to legally prove what is alleged. This differs greatly from the mere act of recording the allegation or the evidence itself in the file, because proof for cassation purposes is only that to which the judgment gives that rank after a rigorous assessment process.
And the principle not only has an important connotation in the affirmative aspect but also in the negative one, as whoever alleges the non-existence, modification, or extinction of a fact or claim must also prove it. To the principle of the burden of proof, in a democratic and non-inquisitorial regime, many other principles are linked, among which the freedom of proof (libertad probatoria) stands out. According to this principle, all parties must have broad powers to offer all lawful means of proof, especially those legitimately obtained, that is, all means duly authorized by the legal system and brought into the file following the procedures also regulated by the procedural system, where the parties must have the right to question their own evidence and that of the opponent, with the purpose of proving or denying the facts, affirming or contradicting the claims.' (First Chamber of the Supreme Court of Justice, No. 554 at 3:10 p.m. on August 4, 2000 – the bold is not from the original).
For the awarding of damages, case law has required demonstrating the causal link (nexo causal) between the abstractly imposed conviction and what is claimed in the execution (First Chamber, No. 830 at 11:45 a.m. on September 22, 2004, and No. 674 at 11:30 a.m. on August 18, 2004). Furthermore, case law has established that damages derived from an unlawful act or conduct are debts of value, not monetary debts, which is why the amount should not become a reason to deny them, provided they are proven (In this regard, First Chamber, Vote No. 226 of March 31, 2004).'
“VI.- La Jurisprudencia Agraria ha sido prolifera en el establecimiento de la responsabilidad objetiva por daños agroambientales, y en particular ara el caso de las quemas, por lo que el Tribunal procederá, en primer lugar a analizar ese tema:
" IV.- Nuestro ordenamiento jurídico contiene varias disposiciones que en forma expresa y directa se refieren a las quemas e incendios forestales y la responsabilidad que se origina por ellos. Tenemos así: a) Ley de Cercas Divisorias y Quemas,N°121 de 26 de octubre de 1909: Su artículo 5 prohibe hacer quemazones en los campos. Únicamente las autoriza cuando se trate de desmontes para habilitar terrenos con fines agrícolas: Para ello se debe: 1) Solicitar permiso a la autoridad política local, 2) Tener garantías y precauciones para evitar mayor destrucción a la que se pretende o perjuicio a terceros,3) Notificar personalmente o por cédula de la autoridad a todos los colindantes o interesados el día y hora de la quema, por lo menos con dos días de antelación, 4) Dejar una distancia mínima de [Dirección1] metros sobre los manantiales nacidos en los cerros, y de 200 metros sobre los manantiales en terrenos planos.
En materia de responsabilidad, expresamente indica que ,en todo caso ,el que hiciere quemazones debe pagar los daños y perjuicios que a causa del fuego se ocasionen. Se presume autor de la quemazón el propietario, poseedor o arrendatario que en la época del fuego estaba preparado para ese objeto. B) La Ley Forestal vigente, N°7575 de 13 de febrero de 1996, en su capítulo IV sobre “Protección Forestal” prohibe la realización de quemas en terrenos forestales y aledaños a ellos, sin haberse obtenido el permiso de la Administración Forestal del Estado. Remite al Código Penal para sancionar a quien realice una quema sin permiso (artículo 35). Asimismo, los numerales 59 y 60 respectivamente sancionan el causar dolosa o culposamente un incendio forestal, con penas de uno a tres años en el primer caso y de tres meses a dos años en el segundo. C) Reglamento a la Ley Forestal, Decreto N°25721-MINAE de 17 de octubre de 1996: Establece que el funcionario de la Administración Forestal debe visitar el lugar previo a otorgar un permiso de quema (artículo 34).
Indica incluso no opera el silencio positivo en cuanto al criterio del MINAE. En cuanto a los terrenos forestales, zonas protectoras, parques nacionales, refugios de vida silvestre, prohibe la realización de quemas (artículo 88). F) Decreto N°17015-MAG,del2 de mayo de 1986: Creó la comisión Nacional para los Incendios Forestales. Dicha Comisión, según el Decreto N° 19434-MIRENEM de 11 de diciembre de 1990, tiene como atribuciones recomendar las políticas nacionales y preparar los programas de prevención y combate de incendios forestales. G) Decreto N°21859-MIRENEN del 7 de diciembre de 1992: Estableció el Comité contra Incendios Guanacaste como una instancia de coordinación, apoyo y seguimiento del Programa de Incendios Forestales de la Región Huetar Norte. H) Decreto N°23850-MAG-SP del 4 de noviembre de 1994, Reglamento para quemas controladas con fines agrícolas y pecuarios: En él se establecen los requisitos mínimos para poder efectuar quemas e incendios, especialmente en terrenos de uso agrícola o pecuario.
Se define quema al fuego provocado intencionalmente, regulado por un plan preestablecido, en el cual se asumen todas las medidas preventivas para evitar daños a los recursos naturales y a las propiedades de los colindantes. Son incendios los que, natural o artificialmente, afecten bosques, terrenos forestales, terrenos agrícolas o de uso pecuario (artículo 1). Para efectuar quemas en terrenos agrícolas y pecuarios debe contarse con una autorización escrita del Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería. El funcionario además de las medidas ya tomadas aprobadas según visita que debe hacer previo al permiso, debe indicar si lo concede las adicionales que considere necesario (artículos 2 y 3). El numeral 6° establece como requisitos mínimos los siguientes:
VIII.En segundo lugar, se analizará lo relativo a los daños y perjuicios. La jurisprudencia ha definido dichos conceptos así: “IV.- El daño constituye uno de los presupuestos de la responsabilidad civil extracontractual, por cuanto el deber de resarcir solamente se configura si ha mediado un hecho ilícito dañoso que lesione un interés jurídicamente relevante, susceptible de ser tutelado por el ordenamiento jurídico. El daño, en sentido jurídico constituye todo menoscabo, pérdida o detrimento de la esfera jurídica patrimonial o extrapatrimonial de la persona (damnificado), el cual provoca la privación de un bien jurídico, respecto del cual era objetivamente esperable su conservación de no haber acaecido el hecho dañoso. Bajo esa tesitura no hay responsabilidad civil si no media daño, así como no existe daño si no hay damnificado. Por otra parte, solo es daño indemnizable el que se llega a probar (realidad o existencia), siendo ello una cuestión de hecho reservada al prudente arbitrio del juzgador.
En suma, el daño constituye la brecha perjudicial para la víctima, resultante de confrontar la situación anterior al hecho ilícito con la posterior al mismo. En muchas ocasiones se utilizan indiscriminadamente las expresiones “daños” y “perjuicios”. Es menester precisar y distinguir ambos conceptos. El daño constituye la pérdida irrogada al damnificado (damnum emergens), en tanto el perjuicio está conformado por la ganancia o utilidad frustrada o dejada de percibir (lucro cesans), la cual era razonable y probablemente esperable si no se hubiese producido el hecho ilícito. V. No cualquier daño impone la obligación de resarcir. Para que sea indemnizable han de confluir, básicamente, las siguientes características: A) Debe ser cierto; real y efectivo, y no meramente eventual o hipotético, no puede estar fundado en realizaciones supuestas o conjeturables. El daño no pierde ese carácter si su cuantificación resulta incierta, indeterminada o de difícil apreciación o prueba; tampoco debe confundirse la certeza con la actualidad, pues es admisible la reparación del daño cierto pero futuro; no cabe confundir el daño futuro con el lucro cesante o perjuicio.
En lo relativo a la magnitud o monto (seriedad) del daño, constituye un extremo de incumbencia subjetiva única del damnificado, empero el derecho no puede ocuparse de pretensiones fundadas en daños insignificantes, derivadas de una excesiva susceptibilidad. B) Debe mediar lesión a un interés jurídicamente relevante y merecedor de indemnización. Así puede haber un damnificado directo y otro indirecto: el primero es la víctima del hecho dañoso y el segundo serán los sucesores de la víctima. C) Debe ser causado por un tercero y subsistente; esto es, que no haya sido reparado. D) Debe mediar una relación de causalidad entre el hecho ilícito y el daño. VI. Dentro de las clases de daños, se encuentra en primer término el daño material y el corporal, siendo el primero el que incide sobre las cosas o bienes materiales que conforman el patrimonio de la persona, en tanto el segundo repercute sobre la integridad corporal y física.
En doctrina, bajo la denominación genérica de daño material o patrimonial, suelen comprenderse las específicas de daño corporal y de daño material, en sentido estricto. La segunda parece ser la expresión más feliz, pues el daño corporal suele afectar intereses patrimoniales del damnificado (pago de tratamiento médico, gastos de hospitalización, medicamentos, etc.), ganancias frustradas si el daño lo ha incapacitado para realizar sus ocupaciones habituales (perjuicios), etc …” (Sala Primera de la Corte, No. 112 de las 14:15 horas del 15 de julio de 1992 y No. 714 de 16:20 horas del 18 de setiembre del 2002) – Lo subrayado no es del original-.
IX.En cuanto a la prueba de los daños y perjuicios, rige el principio de la carga probatoria consagrado en el artículo 317 del Código Procesal Civil, y para los casos de ejecución en materia agraria, en el artículo 62 inciso c) de la Ley de Jurisdicción Agraria. Al respecto, la jurisprudencia nacional ha establecido lo siguiente: "En materia de daños y perjuicios, tema sobre el cual existe una larga experiencia, el elemento probatorio juega un papel muy importante. Quien los alegue debe probarlos, igualmente quien los niegue, salvo el caso del daño moral subjetivo al cual es consentido a los jueces valorarlo según las reglas de la experiencia, la lógica y la ciencia, sin sujeción a ningún otro criterio probatorio. En el sistema procesal moderno aún tiene plena vigencia el aforismo romano judex secundum allegata et probata partium decidere debet. Esto significa la limitación de los jueces a poder dictar sus sentencias a todo cuanto las partes aleguen y prueben.
La simple alegación de un hecho no basta para su condena porque es la parte quien está en la obligación de ofrecer las pruebas en tiempo, lograr del juzgador su admisión, presentarlas para ser evacuadas, y finalmente, dentro del proceso de valoración probatoria, tarea por excelencia del juzgador, atribuirle a esos elementos probatorios el valor necesario para acreditar el hecho formulado. Se trata del conocido principio de la carga de la prueba. Consiste en la obligación de todo quien alegue un hecho o una pretensión en proceder a probar legalmente lo alegado. Esto difiere mucho del mero hecho de acreditar en el expediente el alegato o la misma prueba, porque prueba para efectos de la casación es sólo aquélla a la cual la sentencia le da ese rango después de un severo proceso de valoración. Y el principio no sólo tiene una importante connotación en el aspecto afirmativo sino también en el negativo, pues quien alegue la inexistencia, modificación o extinción de un hecho o de una pretensión también deberá probarlo.
Al principio de la carga de la prueba, en un régimen democrático y no inquisitorio, se vinculan muchos otros principios, dentro de los cuales sobresale el de la libertad probatoria. Según ese principio todas las partes deberán tener amplias facultades para ofrecer todos los medios lícitos de prueba, sobre todo obtenidos legítimamente, esto es todos los medios debidamente autorizados por el ordenamiento jurídico y llevados al expediente siguiendo los procedimientos también pautados por el sistema procesal, donde las partes deben tener el derecho de preguntar a la propia prueba y a la contraria, con el objeto de demostrar o negar los hechos, afirmar o contradecir las pretensiones." (Sala Primera de la Corte Suprema de Justicia, No. 554 de 15:10 horas del 4 de agosto del 2000 – la negrita no es del original). Para el otorgamiento de los daños y perjuicios, la Jurisprudencia ha exigido demostrar el nexo causal entre la condena en abstracto impuesta y lo que se reclama en la ejecución (Sala Primera, No. 830 de 11:45 del 22 de setiembre, 2004, y No. 674 de 11:30 horas del 18 de agosto del 2004).
Por otra parte, la Jurisprudencia ha establecido, que los daños y perjuicios derivados de un hecho o conducta ilícita, son deudas de valor, y no dinerarias, motivo por el cual la cuantía no debe convertirse en motivo para denegarlos, siempre y cuando resulten probados (Al respecto, Sala Primera,Voto No. 226 del 31 de marzo del 2004).”
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